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MOORE AND HALLIGAN'S PLANT PRODUCTION 

EDITED BY 

KIRK LESTER HATCH, B.S. 

PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON 



PLANT PRODUCTION 

PART I — AGRONOMY 
PART II — HORTICULTURE 



BY 

RANSOM A. MOORE 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMV. THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN 



MADISON 



AND 



CHARLES P. HALLIGAN, B.S. 

PROFESSOR OF LANDSCAPE GARDENlNt; 
MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, EAST LANSING 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 






Copyright, 1919, by 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

All rights reserved 



MAY -3 1919 

©CI.A5a5329 



GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

This series of agricultural texts is based on the theory that 
the successful farmer should know the physical and biological 
forces with which he has to contend ; that he should understand 
the laws under which these forces operate ; and that he should 
acquire some skill in directing them. He should ultimately 
become able to adjust and correlate these forces so as to bring 
them all under the orderly operation of economic law. In con- 
formity with the above theory this series has been made to cover 
the following fundamental divisions : 

The science and art of producing agricultural plants. 

The production, care, and management of farm animals. 

The establishrtient and conservation of soil fertility, with the 
chemistry of the same in relation to plant and animal production. 

The proper balance and combination of these three aspects 
of agricultural production, in the business management of the 
farm. 

What Vocational Agriculture Demands. — Vocational train- 
ing in agriculture should differ from trade instruction in 
one most important regard : trade training develops skilled 
workers for the various branches of an industry; it neither 
develops, nor aims to develop, factory managers. It usually 
deals with parts of the construction, less frequently with the 
finished product, and more rarely still with the management 
of the manufacturing plant. Vocational agriculture, on the 
other hand, must train for the operation of the whole plant, as 
the farm is a unit in itself. The trained farmer must be skilled, 
not only in the arts of his varied industry, but also in the scien- 

5 



6 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

tific management of the entire farm. Added to skill there must 
be knowledge and understanding. 

What the Federal Law Requires. — Under the Smith-Hughes 
law passed by Congress early in 191 7, vocational instruction 
in agriculture — to quote its language — "must provide for 
directed or supervised practice in agriculture either in a farm 
provided by the school or other farms for at least six months 
per year." There can be no question as to the meaning or the 
intent of this law. It demands that agricultural instruction 
shall be useful, practical, and of immediate application. 

What This Text is Designed to AccompUsh. — The authors 
of this book have long held the opinion that is expressed in 
the Smith-Hughes law and made a condition of its fulfilment. 
They have therefore made radical departures from the usual 
style of textbook construction. In addition to the informa- 
tional material, emphasis is placed on frequent sets of Exercises 
intended to provoke class discussion and to direct attention 
to the estabhshed practices on the home farm. Following 
these exercises are lists of Home Projects designed to suggest 
how the lessons gained from study of the text may be turned at 
once to practical account. 

It is beHeved that by following the plan set forth in this 
volume teachers of vocational agriculture may fulfil the most 
vigorous demands of the Smith-Hughes law. It is hoped that 
students may also find herein something of inspiration, as well 
as of immediate practical use. 

KIRK LESTER HATCH. 



PREFACE 

Agronomy. — The farm crops of a country are the foundation 
of its agriculture. All farm boys and others interested in agri- 
culture should make a careful study of these crops. The Field 
Crops Section of Plant Production is designed for those who 
desire a plain practical treatise on the various field crops. Only 
the more important economic plants have been discussed. The 
aim of the authors has been to present the subject matter in 
such simplified form that there will be no doubt as to its mean- 
ing in the mind of the reader. The various home projects 
presented will enable the student to put what he has learned into 
actual practice. 

The simple truth concerning the growth of farm crops, im- 
pressed upon the student as nature unfolds to him her secrets, 
should develop interest in agriculture and a better understand- 
ing of the many interesting facts of science continually unfolded 
before our eyes in the everyday world in which we live. 

After many years of teaching experience with young people 
from the farms, the authors have endeavored to put into book 
form the methods which proved most successful in impressing 
young people with the value and importance of pure-bred seeds 
and the best practice in the growing and handling of farm crops. 

Horticulture. — The text in horticulture aims to present 
in a simple, direct, and logical manner the basic principles gov- 
erning its practice, with such typical, suggestive questions, 
problems, and exercises on the text as might be used for class 
work. 

This branch of agriculture, dealing as it does with considera- 
tion of the individual plant as a unit, is most adaptable to peda- 

7 



8 PREFACE 

gogical practice, and is an excellent foundational study for 
general agriculture. 

The teacher will find that it can readily be adapted to local 
conditions, emphasizing the particular part that is of most 
importance in the locality. However, one should not overlook 
the general educational value of the subject matter that is not 
of economic importance in the immediate neighborhood. 

In country districts where fruits may be grown successfully 
this particular portion of the text may be emphasized, while in 
other country sections vegetable gardening may prove of greater 
interest. Under such conditions the primary aim of the teacher 
should be to arouse interest and enthusiasm for this work 
rather than to emphasize the presentation of an endless list of 
cultural facts. 

In the town or city the more intensive phases of the work, 
such as the growing of crops under glass, may prove most ap- 
pealing. Here, too, a study of the ornamental trees and plants 
will arouse an interest in and respect for these things in the 
work of civic development. 

R. A. MOORE. 
C. P. HALLIGAN. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. AGRONOMY 



CHAPTER 

I. The Soil and the Plant 

II. Corn 

III. Corn and Grain Judging 

IV. Wheat 
V. Barley 

VI. Oats . 

VII. Rye . 

VIII. Buckwheat 

IX. Grain Breeding 

X. Leguminous Crops 

XI. Alfalfa 

XII. The Hay Grasses 

XIII. Potatoes . 

XIV. Cotton 



17 
41 
67 
79 
91 

lOI 

107 
112 
120 
141 
161 

174 
188 



PART II. HORTICULTURE 

I. Propagation by Seeds and Spores 
II. Propagation by Separation, Division, and Layer- 
age 

III. Propagation by Cuttings 

IV. Grafting .... 
V. Fruit Growing 

VI. Orchard Management 
VII. Fruit Pests 

9 



210 
217 
228 
240 

253 
267 



CONTENTS 



VTII. Spraying Mixtures 

IX. Thinning, Harvesting, and Storing Fruit . 

X. The Pomes — Apples, Pears, and Quinces . 

XL Stone Fruits — Peaches, Plums, and Cherries 

XII. Grapes, Strawberries, and Bush Fruits 

XIII. \'egetable Gardening 

XIV. Manure and Commercial Fertilizers . 

XV. Tillage and Irrigation 

XVI. Glass Structures and Care of Greenhouse 

Crops 

XVII. Seed Sowing and Transplanting ... 

XVIII. Harvesting, Marketing, and Storing Vegetables 

XIX. Landscape Gardening 

XX. Trees, Shrubs, Vines, and Flowers 

Appendix 

Index . , . . . . . 



PAGE 

291 
301 

337 
348 
354 

360 
368 
376 
382 
398 

413 

417 



PART I. AGRONOMY 

CHAPTER I 
THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 

What Plants Get from the Soil. — About 5 per cent of 
the weight of a plant is made up of elements that come 
from the soil, and about 95 per cent is composed of ele- 
ments that come from air and water. The most impor- 
tant elements taken from the soil are nitrogen, phosphorus, 
potassium, and calcium. The elements that a plant takes 
from air and water are carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. 
When a plant is burned these last three elements and nitro- 
gen disappear into the air. In the ash that remains are 
all the elements, except nitrogen, that came from the soil. 
At the outset it is well to keep in mind that although four 
fifths of the air is nitrogen, plants cannot get this element 
directly from the air, but obtain it from nitrogen-con- 
taining substances in the soil. 

What Soil Is. — The soil consists of mineral particles ; 
decaying plants and animals; living organisms, such as 
bacteria and worms ; soil water ; and soil air. The min- 
eral particles have been formed by the breaking up and 
decay of solid rock. Rain, air, frost, and streams are 
some of the agencies that have changed solid rock into 
soil. Even earthworms and many other small forms of 
animal life are active agencies in making soil. The de- 
caying plants and animals form the organic matter of the 



12 THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 

soil, which is generally called humus. The soil water and 
soil air occupy the pores in the soil. 

Kinds of Soils. — There are three classes of soils on 




Fig. I. — A rich soil containing much humus. 

the basis of the size of the soil particles. Soils made up 
wholly of very fine particles are called clay soils. Those 
composed largely of particles of sand are called sandy 
soils. Soils consisting of large amounts of both clay and 
sand are called loams. Loams are the most satisfactory 
soils for most crops, because they are easily cultivated, do 
not bake, and hold moisture well. Sandy soils dry out 
rapidly and clay soils bake in the hot sun after heavy 
rains. The special methods for handling these soils are 
taken up later in this text in connection with the respective 
crops best adapted to them. 

Color of Soils. — The color of soils is due to decaying 
organic matter and to mineral substances which they con- 
tain. The black color of soil is due mainly to the de- 
caying vegetable matter. Even the red clays turn black 
when fertilized with barnyard manure for some time. 



WATER IN THE SOIL 



13 



Black soil is not necessarily, as is popularly supposed, a 
rich soil. However, a black soil is likely to contain a good 
deal of humus, which aids greatly in plant growth. 

The red color of some soils is due to the red iron oxide 
they contain. Another form of iron oxide is yellow, and 
this gives the yellow color so common to clays. 

Water in the Soil. — Suppose that we have before us a 
flowerpot filled with soil that is saturated with water. In 
this condition the spaces between the soil particles are 
filled with water and the soil air is thus excluded. Through 
the opening in the bottom of 
the flowerpot a large part of 
the water will drain away. 
This is called free or gravita- 
tional water. After all the 
gravitational water has dripped 
away part of the water re- 
mains. It exists as thin films 
around the particles of soil 
and is called film or capillary 
water. The capillary water moves in any direction, but 
always toward the driest portion of the soil. In dry 
weather the roots of the crops are supplied with moisture 
from the saturated zone of the ground, which may be sev- 
eral feet down, by the force which we call capillary attrac- 
tion. Thus the capillary water moves through the soil 
very much as oil moves through the wick of a lamp. 

It is the capillary water in the soil that is useful to plants. 
In soil that is saturated with water, crops cannot thrive 
because the soil air is excluded. Therefore, it is important 
that the supply of capillary water be maintained by proper 
methods of tillage. The ground must be kept in such a 




Fig. 2. — Capillary water. 



14 



THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 



condition that capillary water can move upward from the 
great reservoir of ground water to the roots of the crops 
and that excessive evaporation from the surface is pre- 
vented. Capillary moisture passes very slowly through a 




Characteristic root growth of alfalfa. 



layer of cloddy soil, heavy sod, or coarse manure. There- 
fore it is necessary before planting a crop that the soil be 
well pulverized and that there has been sufficient time after 
plowing for the sod or coarse manure, which has been 



ESSENTIAL FERTILIZERS 15 

turned under, to decay. Excessive evaporation can be 
prevented by shallow cultivation after a crop has been 
planted. "After a shallow cultivation the fine soil on top 
dries out quickly ; and in a loose, dry condition it acts as 
a barrier to the upward movement of the capillary water 
beneath. Thus this layer of fine, dry soil, which is called 
a soil mulch, acts as a blanket to prevent evaporation. 
When a soil mulch becomes compacted by a rain it no 
longer acts as a barrier to capillary water and excessive 
evaporation begins anew. The ground should be given a 
shallow cultivation after each rain in order to form a new 
mulch. 

Essential Fertilizers. — The elements needed by plants 
are found in the soil in sufficient quantity with but three 
exceptions, nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus. These 
exist in the soil in very small amounts, and if plants are 
continually grown thereon and removed, these substances 
soon become exhausted. They must be suppHed to the 
land by some means if good crops are to be secured. Barn- 
yard manure is called a complete fertilizer because it con- 
tains all of these three elements. It is ordinarily the best 
fertilizer to use when it can be obtained. Nitrogen is 
furnished by legumes. Other important sources of nitrogen 
are cottonseed meal and nitrate of soda. Muriate of 
potash is one of the potassium fertilizers. Bone meal and 
rock phosphate are added to furnish phosphorus to the 
soil. 

Lime is used as a fertilizer on some soils, but more often 
it is used to sweeten sour soils. An acid, or sour, condi- 
tion of the soil is unfavorable to crops, and therefore this 
action of lime in destroying soil acidity is extremely im- 
portant to the farmer. 



1 6 THE SOIL AND THE PLANT 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a collection of soils, classifying them in the various 
groups to which they belong. 

2. Examine samples of soils with a low-power microscope 
to detect, if possible, remnants of partially decomposed plants. 

3. Fill a glass tube 20 inches long and one inch in diame- 
ter with air-dry sand, another with clay, and a third with loam, 
after inserting a cotton plug in the lower end of each tube. 
Now set these tubes in a pan of water and note the rapidity 
with which the water rises in each tube. This upward move- 
ment of water is due to capillarity. 

4. Fill one of the tubes used in the previous experiment 
half full of sandy soil ; one, half full of clay soil ; and the last, 
half full of loam. Now place in one a handful of coarse lumps, 
in another a pinch of dry grass, and in the third some coarse 
straw ; then fill each tube to the top with the sort of soil used 
in the lower half. Set the tubes in the pan of water used in 
the previous experiment. Does the water rise above the lumps, 
grass, or straw? Why not? What does this teach about plow- 
ing, disking, harrowing, and maintaining a soil mulch to pre- 
vent evaporation ? 

5. Insert a glass tumbler over a small growing plant. Drops 
of water soon appear on the inner surface of the glass. Where 
does this water come from? What does it teach? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Make a collection of as many kinds of soil as can be found 
on the home farm or in the neighborhood. 

2. Make a map of the home farm and show by means of 
colors the distribution of the various kinds of soil found thereon. 



CHAPTER II 
CORN 

History. — The importance of this cereal rightfully gives 
it first place in the consideration of farm crops. No other 
single forage plant has exerted so beneficial an influence on 
American agriculture and no other plant is of greater intrin- 
sic value. While authors differ as to the original home of 
the corn plant, yet there is little doubt that it is of American 
origin. 

Columbus found corn growing on the islands that he 
discovered on his first voyage to America, and later other 
explorers found it on the mainland. The Indians used it 
as a food ; and samp, succotash, and parched corn have 
been handed down to present times. Corn, cultivated by 
the colonists, followed the early settlers westward and 
played an important part in our rapid agricultural de- 
velopment. 

Classification. — Corn belongs to the grass family and 
to that division known as Zea mays. The small grains, 
rye, wheat, barley, and oats, in European and Asiatic 
countries were known as corn ; and Columbus, to distin- 
guish corn from the grains of Europe, called it Indian corn, 
a name that is still applied to it in some sections of the 
country. However, it is generally known as corn. The 
corn family is divided into six different groups : pod corn, 
soft corn, pop corn, sweet corn, flint corn, and dent corn. 
The first group is of no commercial importance and is 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 2 1 7 



i8 



CORN 



occasionally found in cornfields as a reminder of the tend- 
ency of corn to revert to its original type. In the pod 
corn each kernel is inclosed in a separate husk. These 
kernels and husks are arranged in regular rows uiM:)n the 
cob, similar to our dent corn. 

Soft corn is grown to some extent in the South, in Mexico, 
and in some of the Central American States. It is charac- 




Fig. 4. — Types or breeds of corn. From left to right, pod corn, soft com, pop 
corn, sweet corn, flint corn, dent corn. 



terized by its high starch content and is of little commercial 

value. 

' Pop corn is grown largely as a confectionery and is 

handled principally by candy stores and pop-corn venders. 

It derives its name from its power to invert or " pop " 

when the moisture inclosed by the hard flinty endosperm 



KINDS OF CORN 



19 



is subjected to high temperature. Gardeners and some 
farmers raise large quantities of pop corn for the confec- 
tionery market. The two chief varieties of pop corn are 
the rice and the pearl with many variations in each. The 
rice pop corn has sharp pointed kernels while the kernels 
in the pearl have 
rounded crowns re- 
sembling the flint 
corn. 

Sweet corn is 
grown quite largely 
as a green vegetable 
and for canning pur- 
poses. Many fac- 
tories throughout the 
corn belt make a 
specialty of canning 
sweet corn. Sweet 
corn is also used for 
feeding dairy cattle 

during the early part of the summer when feed is short. 
It is cut when the ears are soft and the whole plant is fed. 
There are many varieties of sweet corn, varying in color from 
white to black. There are early, medium, and late maturing 
varieties. Consequently good, palatable sweet corn can 
be secured through the larger portion of the summer and 
fall. Among the leading varieties are Stowell's Evergreen, 
Burpee's Golden Bantam, Early Black Mexican, Early 
Champion, Crosby's, and Country Gentleman. 

Flint corn or Yankee corn is grown quite extensively in 
the New England States and in those states where the 
seasons are too short for the larger dent varieties. The 




5. — Varieties of pop corn. 



20 



CORN 




Fig. 6. — A sample of eight-row flint corn. 

flint corn often gives yields comparable with the dent and 
is high in feeding value. This corn is readily recognized 
by the smooth flinty surface of the kernels. Many of the 
flint varieties have but eight rows to the ear ; some have 
twelve, and fourteen rows are quite common. Some of 
the leading varieties of flint corn are Yellow Flint, White 
Flint, Red Flint, Blue Flint, Smut Nose Flint, Sanford's 
Flint, and King Philip Flint. 

Dent corn is so called on account of the dent in the 




Fig, 7. — A sample of Wisconsin No. 7 dent corn. 



HABITS OF GROWTH 



21 



crown of each kernel. The dent varieties far exceed in 
value all other groups of corn combined. There are several 
hundred varieties of dent corn, all of which are subdivisions 
of Yellow Dent, White Dent, Red Dent, and Strawberry 
Dent. Many of the experiment stations are now breeding 
high yielding strains of corn that are usually referred to by 
number, as Minnesota No. 13 and Wisconsin No. 7. Occa- 
sionally both name and number are given, as Golden Glow, 
Wisconsin No. 12. Of the white, Boone County White, 




Fig. 8. — Well-developed leaf surface of special bred silage corn. 

Johnson County White, White Superior, Silver King, and 
Silver Mine are leaders. 

Habits of Growth. — The kernel of corn sends up but a 
single main stalk. This main stalk may branch near the 
surface of the ground in shoots, known as suckers, but 
usually only one stalk puts forth from each seed. If corn 



2 2 CORN 

is planted under abnormal conditions on very poor or on 
very rich soil, it will have a tendency to sucker. Where 
corn is used exclusively as a forage, suckering is not regarded 
as objectionable. The tendency to sucker is most charac- 
teristic of flint corn. 

Corn has two sets of roots : those underneath the surface 
of the ground, known as feeders ; and those attached to the 
corn plant above the surface of the ground, known as brace 
roots. These brace roots aid in keeping the stalk erect and 
in preventing the plant from being blown over or broken 



Fig. 9. — Imperfect fertilization of corn. 

down during severe wind storms. The cornstalk is sup- 
plied with joints or nodes from which leaves are sent out. 
The number of leaves on a stalk varies from ten to twenty 
or more. The entire leaf surface of a single plant may be 
equal to twenty-four square feet. The leaf surface plays an 
important part in the Hfe functions of the plant, and through 
the tiny respiratory openings of the leaf it is enabled to 
take in carbon dioxide from the air and to give off soil 
moisture in which the food for the plant has been absorbed. 
The plant is able partially to control the loss of moisture 
in dry spells by the closing of the transpiration organs. 



POLLINATION 23 

The plant is also able to prevent injury to its leaves by 
taking on that noticeably wavy form which gives them 
elasticity. 

Pollination. — The blossom of corn is imperfect. Its 
staminate or male flower is borne on the tassel, and 
its pistillate flowers, known as the silks, on the ears. 
There are a sufficient number of silks so that if each is 
pollinated and produces a kernel of corn, a perfect ear is 
formed. 

A single tassel is able to shed eighteen million pollen 
grains, consequently great clouds of pollen are spread 
over cornfields during the blossoming season. The vast 
amount of pollen grains present in a field of corn renders it 
possible for each silk to be fertilized and produce a kernel. 
The silks at the butt of the ear come forth first, and those 
up through the center of the ear follow toward the tip. If 
a very dry or a very wet spell comes during the early part 
of the pollinating season, the butt silks will not be perfectly 
polUnated, and if the dry or wet spell comes during the 
latter part of the season the tip silks will not be properly 
fertilized, and defective ears will result. (See Fig. 9.) 

Pollen grains may be carried from a fourth to a half mile 
by a strong wind and often a field of choice corn may be 
crossed by an inferior variety grown in a neighboring field. 
In order to keep the variety of corn pure it is necessary to 
plant it a safe distance from other fields. If a small grove 
or a hill Hes between the fields, there is little danger of cross- 
ing. The prevailing wind blows quite steadily from one 
direction during the pollinating season and if one variety 
of corn is planted on the side of the field next to the prevail- 
ing wind, little crossing will occur from the pollen of other 
corn growing in the same field. 



24 



CORN 



Uses of Corn. — Corn is used chiefly as a stock food, but 
in recent years an increasing amount is used as a human 
diet. Many of the breakfast foods are made from corn. 




Fig. 10. — Samples of various kinds of corn products. 



Fine grades of oil, sirup, sugar, and starch are manufactured 
from corn. Large amounts of corn products are annually 
shipped abroad. Glucose factories use annually many 
million bushels of corn for making corn products. 

Corn Culture. — The seed bed for corn should be care- 
fully prepared before the seed is planted. It is better to 
plow clay soil in the fall and let it he in the rough through 
the winter. The frequent freezing and thawing of the 
ground allows the lumps to break down easily and the land 
by proper cultivation in the spring can be put into good 
tilth. If clay lands are plowed in the spring, they should 
not be plowed deeper than in previous years. New ground 
brought to the surface in the spring is detrimental to the 
corn crop. 



CORN CULTURE 25 

On sandy lands and on river bottoms, subject to spring 
overflows, it is preferable to plow in the spring. Which- 
ever practice is followed the fall-plowed land should be 
disked in the spring as soon as it will work well, and the 
disk followed with a fine-tooth harrow at weekly intervals 
to sprout weed seeds and to retain soil moisture by stirring 
the surface to prevent the loss of water from the soil. If 
this is not done, the ground will dry out rapidly and the 
surface soil will be cool as long as rapid evaporation is 
going on. Land becomes mellow if worked early in the 
spring, and retains that mellowness throughout the season. 

If land is plowed in the spring, it should be dragged the 
same day except in damp weather, when it can wait until 
the next day. It is injurious to the ground to let it bake 




Fig. II. — A corn planter. 



in the spring after the furrow is turned, for when it is 
once baked it cannot be brought into good tilth again that 
year. When land is plowed in the fall it should lie in the 
rough during the winter. 



26 



CORN 



Testing the Planter. — The corn should be run through 
a corn grader before planting, or ears having the same 
width of kernels should be selected before shelling so that 
the planter can handle the kernels in a uniform manner. 
The planter should be tested in order to secure the proper 
planter plate to drop the desired number of kernels to the 
hill. In the Northern States the aim is to get 4 kernels 




Fig. 12. — Above, two types of planter plates. Below, uniform kernels of corn at 
left ; irregular tipped kernels in the middle ; irregular butt kernels at right. 



in each hill. Farther south 3 kernels are preferred. If 3 
kernels are placed in a hill, and the hills are placed 3^ feet 
apart, there will be 10,668 stalks per acre if each kernel 
grows and produces a plant. 

The butt and tip kernels should be rejected from the ears 
as they are not regular in size and do not germinate uni- 
formly. Corn cannot be planted evenly if the butt and 



CULTIVATION 



tip kernels are left in the seed corn. Corn is planted either 
by drill or by the check-row method. On mellow land there 
does not seem to be much difference in yield by each method 
if the same number of stalks are grown per acre, but on 
the heavy or weedy soils the check-row system is preferable 
as it allows cross cultivation, which keeps the land mellow 
and kills the weeds 
close to the hills. 
Corn should be 
planted after the 
ground has lost its 
winter chill and the 
chances of heav}' 
frost are past. The 
larger portion of the 
corn crop of the 
United States is 
planted in May and 
harvested in Septem- 
ber and October. 

Cultivation. — Im- 
mediately after planting, a line-tooth harrow should be run 
over the ground to level it and to kill additional weeds. 
As soon as the corn is noticeably above the ground it 
should be cultivated at a fairly good depth. The subse- 
quent cultivations should be shallow, as the roots of the 
corn soon push out to the center of the row and will be 
severely injured if deep cultivation is practiced. Culti- 
vation should be continued until the corn shades the ground. 
If subsequent heavy rains occur, it is often good practice 
to go through the corn with a one-horse cultivator and 
break up the crust that has been formed by the rains. 




First cuUivation of corn. 



28 



CORN 



Harvesting. — Corn may be cut by hand, with a corn 
knife, or harvested with the corn binder. The binder is a 

rnachine that binds 
the cornstalks as it 
cuts them, thus mak- 
ing the crop easy to 
handle. The bundles 
are shocked and later 
drawn to the barn 
and run through a 
shredder ; or the ear 
corn is husked in 
the field and drawn 
to the cribs and the 





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Fig. 14. — Last cultivation of corn. 



stalks stored away for feed. Cornstalks, after the ear corn 
has been removed, are called stover. If used for feed when 
the ears are not removed, thev are called fodder corn. 







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Fig. 15. — A corn harvester. 



In some sections of our country the corn is merely taken 
from the standing stalk and the stalks are left in the field. 
Since approximately one third of the feeding value of corn 



HARVESTING 



29 



is in the stalk, this manner of harvesting corn should be 
discouraged. 

Corn is often cut, shocked, hauled to the barn when needed, 
and run through the feed cutter so as to put it in convenient 
form for feeding. In other instances it is fed whole with 
ear and stalk. One 
of the most conven- 
ient ways of saving 
a large quantity of 
forage for farm stock 
is in the form of 
silage. The corn is 
harvested at the time 
when the kernels are 
glazed and some of 
the lower leaves have 
turned brown. At 
this particular stage 
the highest feeding 
value can be ob- 
tained from the corn. 

Silage corn is 
drawn directly from 
the field and run 
through the feed 
cutter set to cut about an inch in length. It is put into 
the silo by elevator or blower and firmly packed to exclude 
air. If the com is somewhat dry when run into the silo, 
water should be used to moisten it. 

Silage will keep for a year or more and is greatly relished 
by all farm animals, especially dairy cows. Siloing corn is 
the most economical way of putting up large quantities of 




Filling a silo. 



7,0 CORN 

feed. Several different makes of silos are used, all of which 
have their special merits. 

Testing Seed Corn. — An increased yield of corn can be 
secured by testing each ear before planting, and rejecting 
those ears that do not germinate or that show lack of vigor 
or vitality. It is not a difficult task to test each ear of 
seed corn. Fifteen average ears of corn will plant one acre, 
using 4 kernels to the hill and placing the rows 3^ feet 
apart. When the importance of testing seed corn is fully 
realized, few farmers will plant corn without first submit- 
ting it to the test. 

Selecting Ears for Testing. — Only the most nearly 
perfect seed ears, having kernels of a uniform width, should 
be saved for seed. These should be selected from the store- 
room and laid out on the floors or on tables to be convenient 
for making the test. Care should be taken to place the 
ears where they will not be disturbed during the test. 
The ears should be arranged in groups of ten, so as to cor- 
respond with the sections in the seed tester. Each individ- 
ual ear of each section should be numbered. At least 4 
kernels, sometimes 6, are taken singly from dift'erent parts 
of each ear and placed directly in front of the ear from which 
they were taken. 

Seed Corn Tester. — For testing large quantities of seed 
the common square box tester is preferable. For a limited 
number of ears the pie plate test, in which moistened 
cloth pads or blotters are used between plates, is reliable. 
Cotton cloth folded into several layers and moistened 
makes a good device for testing small quantities of seed 
corn. Small squares in which to put the kernels from the 
different ears should be indicated on the cloth and the cloth 
then rolled so as to retain the moisture. 



SEED CORN TESTER 



3T 



««f^WHHv#t# 



a«: 






■!-»• 



A seed tester, showing that most of the grains have vigorous sprouts, that a 
few have weak sprouts, and that some have not germinated- 



A suitable box for making germination tests can be made 
from common boards. A convenient size is 20 X 40 inches, 
and 6 inches in depth. Sawdust is an excellent material 
to use as a germination bed but it should first be put in a 
sack and boiled in water in order to kill bacteria and molds. 
The sawdust should be placed in the box about 3 inches 
deep and should be kept moist but not wet. 

A piece of good muslin upon which two-inch squares have 
been marked and numbered to correspond with the ears to 
be tested, is pulled tightly over the sawdust and tacked se- 
curely to the sides of the box. The kernels of corn taken 
from ear No. i are put into square No. i, and from ear No. 
2, into square No. 2, and so on until all are used. A mois- 
tened cloth is placed over the kernels and a muslin sack 
about two inches thick partially filled with sawdust is 
placed on top of the cloth. 



32 



CORN 



The tester should then be placed where it will be held at 
ordinary room temperature or a little warmer. During the 
day the sawdust reaches a temperature which it holds dur- 
ing the night. Even though the outside temperature drops 
several degrees that of the germination bed will be fairly 
constant. Usually it requires from five to six days to 
make a good test. If at the end of three days the pad of 
sawdust is dry, it should be moistened again. 

Checking the Results of Tests. — After five or six days 
have elapsed the sawdust pack should be taken off and the 
cloth rolled back, care being taken not to move the kernels 
out of their respective squares. The kernels should be 
inspected first to note if any have absolutely failed, second, 
if each kernel has put forth both root and growing point, 
and third, the vigor or vitality shown in the germination. 

All ears having kernels that show defective germination 
should be moved forward on the table. After the test has 
been thoroughly checked up, all the ears that were moved 
forward are rejected and the others used as seed. Before 
shelhng the seed, the butt and tip kernels are removed as 
these lack uniformity in size and shape and do not give 
uniform germination. If the butt and tip kernels are used 
at all, they should be planted by themselves. 

Curing Seed Corn. — One of the factors that enter into 
the securing of higher yields of corn is the curing of the ears. 
It is just as easy to cure corn in a proper manner as it is to 
store it away on the bam floor or in an exposed crib, where 
it will mold or be destroyed by rats and mice. 

The following points should be observed in selecting seed 
corn: 

I. Seed corn should be allowed to mature well on the 
stalk. 



CURING SEED CORN 



33 



2. For corn-breeding work the ears should be selected 
from promising plants, which should be marked and the 
ears left to ripen. 

3. Mark only 
stalks that are leafy, 
of medium size, and 
carrying one good 
ear to the plant. 

4. Select only 
well-formed ears. 

The common prac- 
tice of selecting the 
earliest maturing 
ears and picking 
them from the stalk 
as soon as the husks 
begin to turn yellow 
secures earhness at 
the expense of vital- 
ity. A slight frost 
will not injure corn 
if it is well matured, 
and it is better to 




Fig. 18. — Selecting seed ears from desirable plants. 



run the risk of frost than to pick the ears too early. The 
latter part of the growing season seems to improve greatly 
the vitaKty of the corn. 

Care should be taken in the picking of seed to secure ears 
that are attached to the stalk about 3 or 4 feet above the 
ground. The ears that grow either very high or very low 
upon the stalk should be rejected as undesirable. For the 
same reason we should avoid selecting ears with very short 
or very long shanks and also those from deformed stalks. 



AND H. PLANT PROD. 



34 CORN 

Select the well-formed ears after the husks have turned 
yellow. It is well to follow definite rows in securing seed 
corn, otherwise large numbers of good ears are missed. 
If the corn plants have been studied at a time when the 
corn is in the milk, the desirable stalks marked, and the 
ears selected from these marked stalks after ripening, a 
higher grade of seed corn can be secured than by general 
selection. After the corn is husked, many ears will be 
found imperfect and should be discarded. Seed corn 
should be put into the proper place for curing on the same 
day it is taken from the field. 

When taken from the stalk, corn usually contains from 
20 to 30 per cent of moisture, which, unless reduced to 10 
or 12 per cent, is likely to injure the quahty of the seed. 

If the corn is cured by hanging under a porch or under the 
roof of a corncrib, it should be stored away in a dry room, 
where it will not absorb moisture from the outside atmos- 
phere before hard freezing weather sets in. Germination 
tests have shown that where corn was kept in a dry room 
or attic or was fire-dried it gave a germination test of 98 
to 100 per cent, but where left shocked in the field or on the 
standing stalk throughout the winter, it completely failed 
to germinate. 

Corn should never be placed against the south side of a 
building in the strong sunUght, as the rays of the sun will 
soon injure the vitaUty of the seed on the side of the ear 
turned toward the sun. 

During exceptional years when the corn matures well 
in the fall before cold weather sets in, it will withstand 
freezing and retain its vitaHty on the stalks or in open 
cribs fairly well, but in most years the vitality of the corn 
will be materially reduced and the germination will be 



CURING SEED CORN 



35 



exceedingly low at the time of planting, if left exposed to 
the weather. 

In the Northern States where the seasons are short, 
the most convenient way of ridding the corn of excessive 







n 

-i 




1 


mimm 


^ 1 

- 5 ' i 


*l • .ii 




^m 


^^fflH^^I'"''" 


• il'- 1 


'1 




'Wf^ 


\t ^ «| 


'n^^^mm "^^ 


n" 


i 


n 



Fig. 19. — Curing seed corn with artificial heat. Note the various arrangements of 
the ears of corn. 



moisture is by the use of artificial heat. This method 
is known as curing, kiln-drying, or fire-drying and may be 
done as described below. By thoroughly kiln-drying 
seed and properly storing it thereafter, the corn yield 
can be materially increased over that which could be 
secured from seed not subjected to this drying process. 

Where kitchen or furnace room can be used for curing 
corn, simple devices may be used for holding the corn. A 
practical method is to tie the ears so they are a safe distance 
apart for drying. Another method is to use double cord, 
placing ears between them so that they can be held 
securely and hung on a nail or hook by the loop. Two 



36 



CORN 



persons can conveniently put up a large quantity of corn 
in a short time by the use of the double cord. One person 
holds the cord while the other places the ears in position 
as shown in Fig. 20. 

Small movable racks are often used in which sufficient 
corn to plant five or six acres can be placed and the racks 

put up in the house 
until the corn is well 
dried. Another device is 
the '' corn tree," shown 
at the right of Fig. 19, 
which is convenient for 
curing small quantities 
of seed corn. Often this 
device can be placed in 
a doorway or window 
where there is a strong 
current of air to help 
carry off moisture. Such 
a tree 6 feet high will 
hold enough corn to 
plant 15 acres. 

Boards fastened to- 
gether in panels and 
finishing nails driven in 
on both sides at the 
proper distance apart so 
that the ears will not 
touch make a good corn-curing device. By having the 
panels fastened about two feet apart at top and bottom a 
large quantity of corn can be stored conveniently and in 
such a way as to permit free circulation of air. 




Fig. 20. — Method of arranging corn in the 
double cord hanger. One person holds the 
cord while another places the ears in position. 



EXERCISES 37 

A ventilated attic that has a chimney passing through 
it or is located directly over a heated room so that it can be 
kept at a fairly uniform temperature through the winter is 
a very good place to cure corn. The attic is usually the 
driest portion of the house and if corn is stored in it in 
racks or hanging devices in the early fall, it will cure excep- 
tionally well. During the warm fall weather the attic is 
usually heated by the rays of sun on the roof to a fairly high 
temperature and the effect upon the corn is the same as that 
of fire-drying, provided the quantity of corn is limited. If 
a large quantity is to be dried within the attic, it will be 
necessary to set up a small stove and have plenty of ventila- 
tion in order to cure it in the best manner. 

Underneath the roof of the corncrib is a good place to 
cure corn during the early fall. It should be hung where 
there is a strong circulation of air through the crib. After 
corn has hung there for four or five weeks, it can be taken 
out and put into an attic or a dry room to be kept through 
the winter. 

EXERCISES 

1. If planting corn in accordance with the check- row system, 
placing the hills 3§ feet apart and dropping 3 kernels to the hill 
gives 10,668 plants per acre, how many bushels of corn can be 
grown on 120 acres if the corn after husking weighs one pound 
per ear and each plant produces one good ear ? Estimate corn 
from the field at 80 pounds per bushel. 

2. If the corn was fire-dried and the weight reduced 15 per 
cent by driving off moisture, how many bushels would there 
be, considering the weight of fire-dried corn in the ear at 70 
pounds per bushel ? 

3. If J of the corn is found to be sufficiently good to sell for 
seed corn at $2.50 per bushel, and the remainder is sold at 



38 CORN 

$1.20 per bushel, how much money will be received for the 
corn? 

4. If the above field was planted to a select variety of high- 
bred corn that gave 10 bushels more corn per acre after fire- 
drying and this corn was found to run § seed ears, which sold 
at $3.50 per bushel and the remainder at $ 1.25 per bushel, how 
much more would be realized by growing the select variety of 
corn? 

5. How much will it cost for seed to plant a 40-acre field, 
the seed being worth $3.75 per bushel of 100 ears, if 18 ears 
are needed to plant one acre? 

6. How many gallons of water would there be in 2000 
bushels of cribbed corn, providing it contained 20 per cent 
moisture? Estimate the weight of corn at 80 pounds per 
bushel and water at one pound per pint. 

7. A bin 12' X 12' X 10' will hold how many bushels of 
shelled corn? A bushel equals 2150.4 cubic inches. 

HOME PROJECTS 

I. In the fall select seed corn from foundation field for corn 
improvement. Go into the field when the corn has reached 
the milk stage and the plant shows its characteristics to best 
advantage. A study of the corn plant at this time by individual 
rows will aid materially in getting good foundation stock. 

Select a plant having numerous leaves and one good ear that 
is attached with medium shank to the stalk. The ear should 
be attached between 3 and 4 feet from the ground, and the 
plant should look strong and vigorous. 

A red string or some other mark should be attached to the 
plant so that it will be readily recognized after ripening. At 
least 200 corn plants that closely resemble each other should 
be marked. After the field of corn has ripened fully pick the 
ears from the marked stalks and husk them on the same day that 
the corn is picked. 



HOME PROJECTS 39 

Discard 50 ears that are inferior and fire-dry the remainder 
for seed. After iire-drying make germination test and discard 
50 more ears if necessary that are not strong and vigorous in 
germination. Save at least 100 ears for '*ear-to-the-row" test 
the following spring. 

2. In early spring begin work on corn improvement by the 
ear-to-the-row method. Shell off butts and tips and save the 









k¥J 










-^■^^,-^r. 




^k- *..-.— 











Fig. 21. —Results of the ear-to-the-row method of corn breeding. Yields of good 
seed corn from rows planted with seed from different ears. Crate on left has 19 
pounds of seed corn ; crate on right has 62 pounds of seed corn. 

corn on the middle portion of the ears for planting. Select a 
held where the soil conditions and rotation of crops are uniform. 
Place hills 3§ feet apart each way. Have the same number of 
hills in each row and place 3 kernels in each hill. Use only 
about two thirds of the kernels on each ear. After ripening, 
harvest each row separately and divide into seed ears, crib 
corn, and nubbins. 

Save the seed corn for held work from those rows that through- 
out the growing period showed uniformity of plant growth and 
that gave the largest amount of good quality of seed ears. 
The seed from three or four of the best rows in the hundred-row 
test should be saved for seed. 



40 CORN 

3. Detassel corn to prevent self-fertilization. Go into the 
ear-to-the-row test field just at the time when the tassels are 
beginning to show. If the sheath which incloses the tassel is 
pinched several inches beneath the top of the tassel, we can 
readily remove the tassel from the plant by pulling it out. 
Every alternate row is treated in this way so that one half of 
the rows in the test will be detasseled and the other half will 
bear tassels. The tassel-bearing plants will fertilize the silks 
on the detasseled plants, and also those on the tasseled plants. 
The seed should be retained from the detasseled plants upon 
which a cross has been forced. If any inferior or barren plants 
are found in the tasseled row, pull them up or detassel. 



CHAPTER III 

CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

JUDGING CORN 

Judging the Basis of Corn Improvement. — For many 
years the score card has been used in judging live stock, 
butter, and cheese ; but not until recently has it come into 
general use as an aid in judging corn and other grains. 
Experience has shown, that while the judging of corn by 
the score card is not a definite science, it gives the farmer 
and the student the best opportunity for estimating the 
value of an ear of corn. By carefully studying the different 
points under which corn is judged, and carefully noting 
the defects of each ear, one will soon become so proficient 
that he can select good seed corn, or act as judge satisfac- 
torily in corn contests. 

Corn may be improved by the farmer in two ways: by 
the selection of the best ears for seed from the best stalks 
in the field, or by selecting the best ears from the best row in 
a field, each row of which has been planted with seed from 
a single good ear. Such selection of seed is a simple method 
of corn improvement and can be practiced by any farmer. 

To improve corn by seed selection it is necessary to know 
what kind of ears to choose for seed. For this purpose a 
list of the most important points has been prepared on a 
sheet known as a score card. Each ear is examined and 
compared with the standard. The score card shown in this 

41 



42 



CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 



book has been prepared for a perfect ear of dent corn. In 
scoring, a cut is made in each point in which the ear being 
scored is inferior to the standard. 

Before corn can be accurately judged, the one who scores 
the corn must have a mental picture of the perfect ear. By 
examination of good specimens, this ideal can be readily 
fixed in the mind, and in judging other ears the extent to 
which they fail to equal the ideal can be indicated on the 
score card. To understand best the various points of the 
score card they must be studied separately, in the order 
presented in the following paragraphs. 

A sample of corn for judging or exhibition purposes should 
consist of ten ears of any variety. This number furnishes 




Fig. 22. — Ten uniform ears of corn. The kernels and ears are uniform in size, color, 
and general appearance. 



an easy basis for calculating the cuts for various defects, 
and a sufficient number of ears for a fair sample. 

Arranging the Sample. — Arrange the ears in the sample 
so that the one considered as the best ear is on the left, 
the next best second, and so on, the poorest ear being the 
last on the right. Also keep uniformity in mind. Have 
ears of nearly the same size together. Do not have a short 



SCORING CORN 



43 



ear and a long one side by side. Sometimes it is necessary 
to put an ear out of its place in the order of excellence to 
preserve uniformity in the sample. 

WISCONSIN OFFICIAL CORN SCORE CARD 



V 




1 
Perfect i 
Score 


Score of 
Sample 


I. Trueness to type or breed characteristics 


10 


6 







10 


6 


_ 






3. Color : a. Grain 


5 


3 


8 






b. Cob 


5 


!-3 


7 






4 Alarket condition 


10 


i 7 


- 






^ Tins - - 


5 


1 3 


- 








6 Butts . .... 


5 


- 


- 




■^ 


Kernels ■ ci UniforTiit\' of .... 


10 


i 
7 









h. Shape of ... . 




5 
1 'o 


1 ' 


7 


8 Length of ear . .... 




i ' 


8 












i 5 


,1 3 


- 








10. Space : a. Furrow between rows 




j 5 


3 





b. Space between kernels 


at cob 


5 


3 


5 






1 - 


i 

li 7 
1 


- 








Total 




1 lOO 


69 










Cuts for Ereneral defects 




!.:- 











Final scorfc 




1 . 
1 


5 








\/^MF 


Sample No 



How the Sample is Scored. — After the sample is ar- 
ranged, each ear is scored for the various points in order. 



44 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

The following example, showing how a sample is scored for 
trueness to type, will serve as an illustration. 

In judging trueness to type, a general study of the ear is 
made. Under this head the ear is criticized only from the 
general standpoint of type factors, and no numerical score 
is given for other points in which the ear is deficient. Sup- 
pose ear No. i has the shape, size, and color of the breed of 
corn it represents but is not quite perfect. The color of 
grain may be sHghtly off, a few kernels may be off type, or 
the shape may not conform to the breed. This ear is not 
quite perfect from the standpoint of trueness to type. It 
may be cut .2 point under that head. 

Ear No. 2 is a fairly good ear, but has a few more defects 
than ear No. i. On the points under consideration it is 
poorer than ear No. i and would be cut .3 of a point. 

The same method is followed with all the ears. Each 
ear is criticized and a general cut is made. Then the 
sum of all the cuts is deducted from the total ten points 
for a perfect score, and the remainder is the rating given 
the sample on trueness to type. For example suppose 
that our cuts on the ten ears are as follows : 

Ear No. i 2 

Ear No. 2 3 

Ear No. 3 4 

Ear No. 4 25 

Ear No. 5 35 

Ear No. 6 2 

Ear No. 7 25 

Ear No. 8* 15 

Ear No. 9 5 

Ear No. 10 .4 

Total 3-00 

The 3 points are deducted from the perfect score of 10, 
leaving 7 points as the score for trueness to type. 
The same method of cutting is used on all points except 



SCORING CORN 45 

the percentage of corn to cob, and the length and the cir- 
cumference of ear, which are determined by actual weight 
and measurement. 

After the student has had several exercises on scoring 
single ears in a sample he is then required to score the 
sample as a whole, using the ten ears as a unit. He will 
make cuts on the entire sample of ten ears similar to the 
method employed with the single ear. Instead of adding 
the exact score of the ten ears separately under the various 
heads, as given in the illustration, he scans the entire ten 
ears closely and puts down his estimated score for the whole 
ten ears. By the use of the decimal notation, instead of 
common fractions, the method is very much simplified. 

Suppose that a student, judging a sample for trueness to 
type, finds sufficient defects to cut four points, he then 
deducts this from the perfect score, and enters the number, 
6, in the proper column on the score card. He then con- 
tinues the examination of the sample under the various 
headings, and enters the score on each point as indicated 
on the score card. 

Adding the score under each head gives the total score of 
the sample. If the sample shows a pronounced general 
weakness, points should now be deducted for general 
defects, as explained later. In the score card on page 
42 the total score is 69.5. The sample is cut 5 points 
for general defects, and the final score is 64.5. 

POINTS UNDER WHICH CORN IS SCORED 

Below are discussed each of the separate points under 
which corn is scored, the perfect score for the point under 
consideration is stated, and directions for judging and rules 
for scoring are given. 



46 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

TRUENESS TO TYPE OR BREED 

Perfect Score. — The corn should conform to the stand- 
ard for the type and breed in form of kernel, shape of ear, 
indentation, and color of grain. Perfect score, lo points. 

Directions for Judging. — The first point in judging a 
sample of corn is to determine its trueness to the type 
or breed characteristics. There are breeds of corn, Hke 
breeds of cattle, having peculiar colors or forms which 
distinguish them ; as, for example, the Silver King is a 
white variety and the Golden Glow a yellow variety. It is 
difficult to distinguish between breeds of the same color, 
but this may be learned by experience in handhng corn of 
different breeds. In pure corn of any breed there are 
certain marks which can be easily recognized. 

Rule for Scoring. — Deduct one point for each ear which 
differs radically from the type, and less for each ear that is 
partially off type. 

SHAPE OF EAR 

Perfect Score. — The ideal ear is cylindrical, conforming 
to the standard for the variety, not crooked nor tapering. 
Perfect score, lo points. 

Directions for Judging. — It is as difficult to find an ear 
of corn perfect in shape as it is to find cows, horses, and 
sheep with perfect forms. The shapes of ears of the different 
varieties of corn differ as widely as the shape and form of 
the different pure breeds of cattle. Each class and variety 
has a characteristic shape peculiar to itself. For example. 
Silver King corn has an ear of medium length, large in 
circumference ; while the Golden Glow has an ear consider- 
ably shorter and finer in cob and general conformation. 

The most desirable shape ear is cylindrical from butt to 



COLOR OF GRAIN AND COB 



47 




lip. Where ears are inclined to taper, it will be noticed that 
two or four rows, as a rule, are dropped near the middle of 
the ear. In scorino; 
corn, take into con- 
sideration the soil 
and cUmatic condi- 
tions in which the 
corn was grown. 
The shape of a de- 
sirable ear for cen- 
tral lUinois differs in 
many respects from 
the shape most de- 
sirable for Wiscon- 
sin. The shorter 
growing season in 
Wisconsin demands 
a shallower kernel and a smaller ear to enable the corn to 
mature in a short season. 

Rule for Scoring. — No rule can be given as to the exact 
number of points to be cut on account of defects in shape. 
In general, cut one point for each poorly shaped ear. 

COLOR OF GRAIN AND COB 

Perfect Score. — The color of the grain should be uni- 
form and true to the color standard for the variety, free 
from missing or discolored kernels. Perfect score, 5 points. 
The color of the cob should be a bright cherry red for 
yellow corn and gHstening white for white corn. Perfect 
score, 5 points. 

Directions for Judging. — The color of the corn varies 
with the breed. The Silver King corn has a cream color, 



Fig. 23. — Ears of desirable and undesirable shape. 
The ear at the left is too short and thick, although 
good in other respects ; the second is desirable ; the 
third has an enlarged butt and irregular rows ; the 
fourth, at the right, is too slender. 



48 



CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 



while the Boone County White has a pearly white color. 
These shades have become characteristic of the breeds. 
Yellow breeds vary slightly in color from a pale yellow to a 
deep orange, and the correct color can only be known by a 
thorough acquaintance with the variety. 

If the cobs vary from the standard, a cut should be made 
by the scorer. A bright cherry red denotes health and 
vigor in corn and a pale or dark red cob denotes lack of 
constitution or vitaHty. The white corn cobs should be a 
glistening white and not a pale dead color. 

Some farmers prefer to grow corn of a certain color. 
From tests made by breeders of corn, and by experiment 
stations, it has been found that in general, color makes no 
difference so far as feeding value is concerned. Starting 
with white and yellow corn of equal merit, careful breeding 
of one variety and neglect of the other would soon produce 

a marked difference 
in the yield and 
quality in favor of 
the variety to which 
the best attention 
had been given, 
regardless of the 
color. Like the 
breeder of Hve stock, 
the corn grower 
should select that 
breed of corn which 
suits his taste best, 
keeping in mind 
that the quantity and quality of marketable corn per acre 
are the essential characteristics sought for. 




Fig. 24. — Desirable and undesirable cobs. The yel- 
low corn with a red cob, at the left, is desirable ; the 
second, yellow com with a white cob, should be 
scored off sharply; the third, white corn with a 
white cob, is ideal ; the fourth, white corn with a red 
cob, denotes mixture. 



MARKET CONDITION 



49 



Rule for Scoring. — For each mixed kernel on an ear a 
cut of .1 of a point should be made to the extent of .5 of a 
point for the ear. Kernels missing from the ear are counted 
as mixed. Difference in shade or color, as Hght or dark 
red, white or cream color, must be scored according to 
variety characteristics. A white cob with yellow corn, or 
a red cob with white corn, should be cut .5 of a point. 



MARKET CONDITION 

Perfect Score. — Corn should be ripe, sound, free from 
injuries or disease, and bright in color. Perfect score, 10 
points. 

Directions for Judging. — By market condition we mean 
general excellence and the degree of ripeness or maturity. 
Corn that shows a tend- 
ency to be loose on the 
cob with wide spaces 
between the kernels 
should be scored off 
heavily. Where market 
condition is perfect or 
nearly so, the kernels 
are firm on the cob, 
they fit closely together 
on the cob and in the 
row, and the ear gives 
a rasping sound when 
twisted. 

When corn is scored 
from the feeder's standpoint it is not cut so severely as 
from the grower's or seedsman's standpoint. 

No other head under which com is judged is so important 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 4 



1 


h ^ 


1 


4^i 


1 


1 ni 


1 ■ ^ ' 




Kt 


^^^^EiH 


" !' 11 


j^^m 


'HB 


^^^K . l-^'i^ 


■ /^^ 


wi • M^H 


m' 


' mM 


.;^ 


^^ ' '^^m 


1; 


^m 


l':::&m- 


Wj /s 


-H 


^ 


K ' ;. 9 


m 


■' m 


tm .. 


^> 'J 


1 




i' • t. 






: :;:;: « 


Kv- 




i^ i 




i^ 


W m 


^# -1 


sp? 



Fig. 25. — Ears showing poor market conditions. 
The ear at the left is moldy and soft; the 
middle ear is immature, loose on the cob, and 
badly shelled oflf; the third is mouse eaten. 



so CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

to farmers as market condition, and all farmers should be 
able to judge corn for the perfection of that characteristic. 
The utmost importance is attached to market condition 
in carrying on variety tests, as a variety of corn is of little 
value to a community, if it does not properly mature within 
the growing season. However, corn will gradually adjust 
itself to varying conditions of soil and chmate ; and the 
earliness of corn can be improved materially by selecting 
those ears for seed that show good market condition, even 
if there are but few in the entire field. 

Rule for Scoring. — Cut up to one point for every dis- 
eased, chaffy, injured, or immature ear. 

TIPS AND BUTTS 

Perfect Score. — (a) Tips. The kernels should extend 
over the tip in regular rows, and be uniform in size and 
shape. Perfect score, 5 points, (b) Butts. The kernels 
should extend over the butt in regular rows and be well 
developed and uniform. Perfect score, 5 points. 

Directions for Judging. — A perfect tip has a central 
kernel called the cap, which is completely surrounded with 
uniform kernels. A perfect tip is rarely found, but those 
which come nearest to the ideal should be chosen, providing 
it is not at the expense of other more important factors. 
The tip kernels are likely to be flinty and of a pop-corn 
shape, which is undesirable in dent corn. If bare tips are 
noticeable generally throughout the field, it may be due to 
the fact that the silks representing the tip kernels which 
were formed last were too late to receive the pollen for 
their proper fertilization. If ears having defective tips or 
butts are used for seed, their undesirable characters will 
soon become permanent. Open tips usually accompany 



TIPS AND BUTTS 



shallow and irregular kernels on the ear, which makes the 

kernels on that part of the ear undesirable for planting. 

In judging the character of the butt of an ear of corn, the 

way in which the rows come over towards the shank is 





^Pi^ 


Mim 


^^^'IH 


^i^^l 


■^1 


v4 


li 


llfl 


■ M 


i:/ifl 



Fig. 26. — Desirable and undesirable tips. The three tins, beginning at the left, are 
undesirable ; the one at the right is almost perfect. The first one at the left has a 
bare cob ; the second is double tipped ; and the third is too pointed. 

important. If the corn comes in too close, it reduces the 
size of the shank where it is attached to the ear, and causes 
the ears to drop off during the ripening period. Corn 
breeders in desiring to get a large proportion of corn to the 
cob, often choose ears with too small an attachment for 
the shank. All ears that have butts improperly filled should 
be rejected. The butt and the tip kernels are rejected for 
planting, because they are more likely to be mixed with 
other varieties, and since, due to their pecuHar round forma- 



• • • 



Fig. 27. — Butts of corn ears — four kinds. The one at the left is well formed, the 
next is too contracted ; the third too fiat, and that at the right is badly formed and 
poorly filled out. 

tion, they interfere in the planting. They also are weaker 
in germination and vary more in growth than kernels from 
the middle parts of the ear. 

No planter plate can handle butt and tip kernels so as to 



52 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

drop a uniform number of kernels per hill. As is shown 
in the illustration on page 26 both the round hole drop 
planter plate on the right and the edge drop plate on the 
left are so constructed as to hold one middle kernel for each 
hole or notch. In case the tip and butt kernels are mixed 
with the middle kernels, it is possible, as shown above, for 
two or three of these irregularly shaped tip and butt kernels, 
or for a large middle and a small tip kernel to fit on one 
hole or notch. This will cause irregularity in the number 
of kernels planted per hill. 

Rule for Scoring. — The tips and butts that do not meet 
the standard should be scored severely. Where one inch 
of cob is exposed at the tip a cut of one point should be 
made. Regularity of rows near the tip and the shape and 
size of the kernel must also be considered. If the kernels 
on the butt are uniform in size and extend around it in 
regular order, give it a full score. Cut in proportion as the 
grain is small or compressed. 

KERNELS 

Perfect Score. — (a) Uniformity. The kernels should 
be alike in size, shape, color, and true to the type or 
variety. Perfect score, 10 points, (b) Shape. Kernels 
should be of wedge shape, the width at the tip depending 
on the variety characteristics. Perfect score, 5 points. 

Directions for Judging. — The crown or big end of the 
kernel should be such that the edges of the kernels slope 
from tip to crown. The tip of the kernel, which is the 
part attached to the cob, contains the larger portion of the 
germ and is rich in protein and oil, and consequently of 
the highest feeding value. A plump tip and wide germ 
usually indicate strong vitality. 



KERNELS 



53 



Remove two typical kernels from each ear and place 
them above the ear to which they belong. These kernels 
are the ones compared in determining shape and uniformity 
for the sample. The uniformity and shape of the kernels 
on the individual ear are also considered. 

Kernels with weak or shriveled tips should be discarded, 
no matter how well the outside of the ear may look. At least 



a a riO ea ti* At) 



111 m di II i^^ 

ill II u II M 



Fig. 28. — Various shapes of kernels. To judge kernels remove two kernels from each 
ear two thirds of the way from butt to tip. Place each pair near the ear from which 
they were taken and compare with the ideal. The top row here shown illustrates 
the best, while those in the bottom row are too short and thick for dent corn. The 
long wedge-shaped kernels shown at the right of the top row and the pair in the 
center of the top row are most desirable. 

85 per cent of the oil in the kernel is in the germ, hence corn 
with well-formed germs is desirable. Tests show that the 
oil in corn may vary from 2.5 per cent to 7.5 per cent and 
the protein from 6.5 per cent to 16 per cent. If seed corn 
contains a large amount of protein and oil, the crop grown 
from this seed will be high in these desirable features. 



54 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

Rule for Scoring. — Cut one point for each set of kernels 
which are not uniform. Cut .5 of a point for each set of 
kernels which are shriveled or poorly formed. 

LENGTH AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF EAR 

Perfect Score. — {a) Length. The ear should be up 
to the standard for the section in which the corn is grown. 

Perfect score, 10 
points, (b) Circum- 
ference. In cir- 
cumference the ear 
should be up to the 
standard for the sec- 
tion in which the 
crop is grown. Per- 
fect score, 5 points. 
Directions for 
Judging. —Standard 
measurements for 
corn vary with the 
locality in which it 
is grown. Long ears 
are objectionable 
because they usually 
have poor butts and 
tips, and shallow kernels, and hence a low per cent of grain 
to the ear In general the circumference should be three 
fourths of the length. 

The chief reason for distinct measurements is to secure 
uniformity and compactness in ears. In scoring one must 
not accept ears that are out of the natural proportion, but 
must be governed by some uniform standard. In some of 




Fig. 29. — Relation of length of ear to circumference. 
The ear at the left is too short and thick ; that at 
the right is too long and slender ; the middle ear has 
the correct proportion of length to circumference. 



LENGTH AND CIRCUMFERENCE OF EAR 



55 



the older corn-breeding states, each distinct variety of corn 
has its respective measurements as to length and circum- 
ference. 

Rule for Scoring. — Add the deficiency and excess in 
inches of all ears not conforming to the standard, and for 
every inch thus obtained cut one point. Likewise add the 
deficiency and excess in circumference in inches of all ears 
not like the standard, and cut .5 of a point for every 
inch thus obtained. Suppose the length and circumfer- 
ence of the ten ears, compared with the standard for the 
variety, is as follows, the plus siga indicatmg that the ear 
has greater length or circumference than the standard. 





Ear Nuue-r 


Excess or 


Deficiency 




In Length 
Inches 


In 


Circumference 
Indies 


I 


+ 0-50 

+ 0.75 

+ 0.50 

0.00 

0.00 

— O.IO 

— O.IO 

-0.25 
-0.25 
- 0.50 


H" 0-25 




+ 0-50 




0.00 




+ O.IO 




0.00 


6 


0.00 


7 


— O.IO 


8 


— 0.20 


Q 


— O.TO 


10 . - 


-0.25 








2.95 


I -50 



Therefore, cut the sample 2.95 points for length and 
.75 of a point for circumference. 

SPACES BETWEEN ROWS AND KERNELS 

Perfect Score. — (a) Furrows between rows. The 
furrows between rows should be straight, with uniform space 
between kernels at the crowns. Perfect score, 5 points. 



56 



CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 



(b) Space between kernels. No space should be no- 
ticeable at the tips near where they are attached to the 
cob. Perfect score, 5 points. 

Directions for Judging. — Straight rows are the most 
desirable as they give a uniform appearance to the ear and 
admit of the kernels being placed in a more nearly exact 
position. The kernels on ears with spiral rows are irregular 




Fig. 30. — Spacing of kernels on cob. The ear at the left shows kernels that are close 
in the row. The next ear shows kernels that are loose and open, indicating poor 
development at the tips. The three ears at the right show spaces between the rows. 
The short ear at the right has small irregular spaces ; the middle one of these three 
is almost ideal, the next to the left shows wide spaces between the rows. 

as to depth, width, and shape, and consequently are not 
wanted. From corn breeding experiments at several ex- 
periment stations it has been determined that irregularities 
are transmitted by the mother ear to the progeny, there- 
fore if one desires to make the most rapid advancement 
in breeding to a highly developed type, he should select 
only the ears regular in all characteristics. 
The furrow or groove should not descend to any great 



PERCENTAGE OF GRAIN TO COB 57 

depth but merely mark the dividing line between the kernels 
from butt to tip. Where the furrow is deep, thereby expos- 
ing a large portion of the surface of the kernel, it indicates 
that the corn is badly off type. 

The amount of space between kernels at the cob indicates 
maturity and vitaUty. The kernel tip in immature corn is 
shriveled and therefore leaves a space readily detected. 
In well-matured corn no noticeable space will be found, 
but the kernels will fit tightly together from tip to crown. 

Rule for Scoring. — Cut .25 of a point for ^ to iV inch 
furrows, and cut .5 of a point for ys inch and above. 
Cut .5 of a point for each ear showing space between ker- 
nels at the cob. 

PERCENTAGE OF GRAIN TO COB 

Perfect Score. — The percentage of grain should equal 
the standard for the variety. Perfect score, 10 points. 

Directions for Judging. — Good, well-matured corn 
should show a ratio of from 84 to 87 per cent grain to cob. 
In other words, if we were to shell 100 pounds of ear corn, 
we would get approximately 84 pounds of kernels and 16 
pounds of cobs. The tendency with some corn growers is 
to look for a small cob, thinking that feature of corn to be 
the leading desirable characteristic. In many instances the 
selection of small cobs has been practiced to such an extent 
that the yield of grain has been materially reduced. 

One should choose a medium-sized cob that will carry 
from 16 to 20 rows of kernels of medium depth. If the 
size of the cob is reduced the ear simply drops its rows by 
pairs until we have but 10 or 12 rows remaining. If, on 
the other hand, the cob is too small and the grower has been 
working for a high percentage of grain to cob, the kernels are 



58 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGLN'G 

apt to be of too great depth to mature well in northern 
climates. Immature and chaffy corn gives a relatively low 
percentage of grain to cob compared with well-ripened corn. 
When judging corn for percentage of grain to cob, weigh 
five ears of the sample and record the total weight. Then 




Fig. 31. — Proportion of cob to grain. The cobs and grain of the two ears at the right 
are shown at the left. The shorter ear with thicker cob had more grain than the 
long ear with the slender cob. The percentage of grain to cob cannot be judged 
accurately with the eye, and the grain should be shelled off and both cob and grain 
weighed to determine this point. 

shell and weigh the grain and record the weight. Divide 
the number representing the weight of the shelled grain 
by the number representing the weight of the ears and the 
result will be the percentage of shelled corn. 

GENERAL CUTS 

Directions for Judging. — A defect may be so serious 
that it should cut down the sample as a whole over and 
above the cuts given on the ears. An ear in a sample of 



JUDGING SMALL GRAINS 59 

yellow corn showing all kernels mixed and whitish would 
indicate that the ear was crossed with white corn and 
wholly unfit for seed. A white cob in yellow corn, or a 
red cob in white corn, indicates reversion which is nearly 
as bad. Any condition which shows that the corn will 
not germinate would be a defect serious enough to score 
directly against the sample as a whole. 

Rules for Scoring. — A cut of 10 points should be made 
for every ear that is crossed, as shown by a great preponder- 
ance of kernels of a different color or type. 

A cut of 5 points should be made on every ear of yellow 
corn having a white cob, or an ear of white corn having a 
red cob. 

Every ear that is diseased or damaged in any way so that 
none, or practically none, of the kernels will germinate, 
should be cut 10 points. 

If the sample as scored in the previous example gets a 
rating of 69.5, and the general defects as above cited de- 
mand attention, there should be deducted from the score the 
Qumber of points deemed necessary for such defects. 

General score 69.5 

Cuts for general defects 5. 

Final score 64.5 

JUDGING SMALL GRAINS 

Small grains are usually judged under the following 
heads : trueness to type or breed characteristics ; uni- 
formity in the size and shape of kernels ; color of grain ; 
freedom from mixture with other grains ; size of kernel ; 
freedom from weed seed, dirt, and other foreign material ; 
weight of grain per bushel; viability; damaged, smutty, 
or musty kernels; hardness and texture. 



6o CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

Trueness to Type. — In judging trueness to type in 
samples of grain we take into consideration those charac- 
teristics which are common to that particular variety of 
grain. To be true to type all the kernels should bear a 
close resemblance to each other. Some kernels may be 
smaller than the others, but should have the same general 
appearance, the same markings, and the same color. 

Some varieties of oats, for example, have short, plump 
grains, others have long, slender, or pointed grains. Some 
varieties with short, plump grains have large kernels, others 
small, and the same is true of those varieties having long, 
slender grains. These same observations apply in a greater 
or less degree to barley, wheat, and rye. In general, the 
points which determine type are color, size, and shape of 
kernel, presence or absence of awns and hulls in oats ; 
presence or absence of beards and hulls, and the straight- 
ness or crookedness of the kernel furrows in barley ; and 
the color, size, and shape of kernels in wheat. Oats may 
or may not have hulls. They may be white, yellow, gray, 
red, or black or have different sizes and shapes of kernels, 
depending upon the variety, but there should be no mixture 
of one variety with another. 

Barley may or may not have hulls, or beards ; they may 
be black, blue, or white. The kernels may be long and 
slender, or short and plump. The furrow in a kernel of 
barley may be straight or crooked, depending upon the 
arrangement on the flower stem. In six-rowed barley, 
two thirds of the grains have crooked furrows. In two- 
rowed barley, the furrows are straight. No mixture of 
these classes is allowable. 

Wheat may vary in color from white to a dark red, and 
may be hard or soft, depending upon the variety and the 



JUDGING SMALL GRAINS 6i 

region where it is grown. The kernels may possess a 
wrinkled surface or be perfectly smooth ; some may be long 
and pointed and others short and oblong, depending upon 
varieties. It is important that these different types be 
not found in the same sample if it is to be considered as 
true to type. . 

Uniformity in Size and Shape of Kernels. — In an ideal 
sample of grain, all the kernels should be the same size and 
shape. They may all be small or all be large, but they 
must be all of uniform size and shape. This is important 
because the grain may then be sown at a more uniform rate 
and all plants grown therefrom are likely to be of equal 
strength and vigor. 

Color of Grain. — All kernels in the sample should be of 
the same color. No black, red, gray, or yellow oats should 
be found in a sample of white oats. No mixture of light and 
dark or red and white wheat is allowable. The last rule, 
of course, applies equally to the grains of other colors. 
This point must be closely watched, as it is an indication 
either of mixture or of a lack of breeding. 

Freedom from Mixture with Other Grains. — The 
value of grain for seed is greatly reduced whenever there is a 
mixture of other grains. Special application of this point 
can also be made to wheat and barley for other reasons. 
Wheat to make the best flour should be absolutely pure 
and the best prices can be obtained for it when it is of that 
grade. In the manufacture of malt, maltsters wish to use 
only pure barley, and a mixture of other grains is undesir- 
able. Oats in barley are especially objectionable, as it is 
extremely difficult to separate them from the barley. 

Size of Kernel. — The size of the kernels should be con- 
sidered. In any grain it is desirable to have the kernels as 



62 



CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 




Fig. 32. - Corn grown from well-selected stock. 



JUDGING SMALL GRAINS 63 

large as possible, up to a certain limit. Therefore, all the 
grains of a sample should be large for the variety, as this is 
an indication of a well-matured and vigorous grain. In 
other words, the kernels should be large and plump, not 
undersized or shrunken. 

Freedom from Weed Seed, Dirt, and Other Foreign 
Material. — The grain should be free from all kinds of foul 
material. A sample is at once scored against heavily if not 
thoroughly clean. The cut should be much more severe 
if among the weed seeds in the grain there are those of 
noxious weeds, such as Canada thistle, quack grass, and 
wild mustard. Cracked and shrunken grain, weed seeds, 
and other objectionable materials should be separated from 
the good grain. The farmer should make this separation 
himself. The increased price obtained for the cleaned 
grain will ordinarily more than pay for the cleaning, and the 
screenings can be converted, by grinding, into a good grade 
of ground feed for stock. The grain can be cleaned on rainy 
days or in winter when the value of labor is low. The full 
value of a good fanning mill or grain grader is seldom 
realized. 

Weight of Grain per BusheL — The weight of grain per 
measured bushel is usually an indication of quality and is 
the principal point by which grain inspectors and buyers 
determine the grade and market value of grain. In wheat, 
high weight is indicative of comparatively high protein, or 
more specifically, gluten content, and it is the amount of 
gluten in wheat which determines its bread-making quahties. 
In barley, the same rule applies. Feeders of live stock want 
a high protein barley. 

In oats the higher the proportion of meat to hulls the 
better the feeding value of the oats, as the hulls consist 



64 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

largely of crude fiber. The heavier the oats the higher the 
percentage of meats and the lower the percentage of hulls. 
The average per cent of meat to hulls for oats in the United 
States is 70 per cent, but may vary greatly, depending upon 
the season, the quaHty, and the variety of oats. 

Viability. — For the best results no seed grain should 
have a germination test of less than 95 per cent. A higher 
percentage of germination is more desirable. Germination 
should be strong and vigorous, resulting in a strong, rapidly 
growing young plant. 

Damaged, Smutty, or Musty Kernels. — Wheat should 
contain no smutty or musty kernels. The smut darkens 
the flour and gives it a bitter flavor. If musty kernels 
exist in any quantity in the wheat, the flavor can at once 
be detected in the flour. Both of these conditions lower 
the value of wheat for any purpose and when very bad 
render it utterly valueless for the making of flour. 

Barley should also be free from these same defects. 
Smutty or musty barley is worthless for pearHng purposes 
or breakfast foods, and it also makes poor feed for stock. 
Oats also should be free from smut. 

Hardness and Texture. — Texture is very important 
when considered in connection with wheat, barley, and 
rye. The hardness or softness of the berry is recognized 
by its texture. Its true value as a flour-producing cereal 
is determined by its hard flinty character. 

Excessive discoloration, sprouted kernels, and imma- 
turity are the most important factors affecting the texture 
in grains. Texture is readily disclosed by cutting cross- 
wise a number of the kernels in a sample. 

Odor of Oats. — The odor of oats should be sweet. 
There should be no musty or burnt odor that indicates that 



EXERCISES 65 

oats are not in good keeping condition, or that they have 
been overheated in the bin or stack. Such conditions have 
a tendency to destroy both the seed and the feed value of 
the grain. 

Elevator men often resort to a process of bleaching to 
whiten oats that have been blackened or otherwise injured 
by exposure to the weather. Sulphur is used as the bleach- 
ing agent and oats thus treated often retain the smell of 
sulphur. Oats or barley treated in this way should be 
avoided as they are apt to be injurious as feed, and often 
the vitaHty or germinating power is destroyed or seriously 
impaired. 

Score Cards. — Score cards for use in the judging of 
small grains are to be found in the several chapters dealing 
with these products. 

EXERCISES 

1. After shelling an ear of corn that weighed 12 ounces it 
was found that the corn weighed 10 ounces and the cob 2. 
What was the per cent of corn to cob ? 

2. If it cost I J cents an ear to test seed corn, how much 
would it cost to test the seed corn for 640 acres of land, if it re- 
quired 15 ears of seed corn per acre and if only 75 per cent of 
the tested ears were sufficiently good for seed? 

3. If the testing of the seed was the means of increasing the 
yield 5 bushels per acre, and corn was worth 60 cents per 
bushel on the market, how much money would a farmer get 
for the extra yield on the 640 acres ? 

4. Compare four yellow varieties of corn and two white 
varieties for breed characteristics. 

5. Determine percentage of corn to cob by weighing the 
cobs and shelled corn. 

6. Soak kernels of com for a half hour in hot water, then 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 5 



66 CORN AND GRAIN JUDGING 

divide the kernel into the following parts : tip cap, hull or 
outer covering, sticky layer underneath hull, hard and soft 
starch, and the germ. 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Prepare threshed grains for show purposes: 

The first step is to get plump grains with good color. Rain 
will discolor oats and barley and make them unfit for show 
purposes. This can be avoided by hauling in a small load of 
the bundles and letting them cure in the barn. Then thresh 
this grain separately. Later run the grain through the fanning 
mill and grade out all light seeds, chaff, and foreign matter, 
and retain the large heavy kernels. Get a half bushel or more 
ready. Pick out by hand any bad kernels you may find. It is 
not a difficult matter to prepare a show sample of any good 
grain. 

2. Prepare sheaf grains for exhibits according to the follow- 
ing directions. Pick from your field some good, ripe heads and 
tall stalks of oats, barley, wheat, rye, or whatever grains you 
may be growing and allow them to cure under cover. Then 
strip off all leaves of each stem, and put together in a three- or 
four-inch bundle. Try to secure well-filled heads and as bright 
straw as possible. 

The rules and requirements relating to samples of grains 
issued by the persons in charge of exhibits should be carefully 
studied by exhibitors. 



CHAPTER IV 
WHEAT 

History. — Wheat has followed civilization throughout 
the world and has made it possible for us to obtain a whole- 
some food at a relatively low cost. No other crop has 
so important a place in international commerce, and no 
other has exerted a greater influence upon the human race. 

Wheat was first growTi as a food in southwestern Asia and 
from there carried into Europe and Africa. It is thought 
that wheat was first brought to the western continent by 
Cortez at the time of the Spanish conquest. Barley vied 
with wheat as a human food in Europe and Asia for many 
centuries, but wheat gradually gained in favor and is now 
the popular bread-making cereal of the world. 

Classification and Varieties. — There are eight different 
species or subspecies of wheat which are now cultivated ; 
namely. Einkorn, Polish wheat, Emmer, Spelt, Club 
wheat. Poulard wheat. Durum wheat, and common wheat. 

This chapter deals principally with the common, bread- 
making wheat. There are numerous varieties of common 
wheat, but for all practical purposes they can be classified 
as spring wheat and winter wheat, of- which there are hard 
and soft varieties, likewise bearded and beardless varie- 
ties. The hard and soft winter wheats may be either red 
or white in color. 

The Turkey Red wheat with its several subvarieties is 
most wddely grown as hard mnter wheat and the Fultz as 

67 



68 



WHEAT 




•^^5^^^^^-^ -^>-:, 




:>^ 



^?:^^v 



— t3 

S CO 
O « 

*:a 




VARIETIES OF WHEAT 



69 



soft winter wheat. The Fife, Marquis, Bluestem, and Vel- 
vet Chaff are best known and most widely grown as hard 
spring wheats. The Velvet Chaff is a bearded spring 
wheat of the Fife variety, but is considered inferior to Fife 
and Bluestem as a bread-making wheat. 

The type of wheat known as the Durum or Macaroni is 
now quite generally grown in the semiarid regions of the 




Fig. 34. — Some common strains of wheat. From left to right, Turkey Red, Fife, 
Velvet Chaff, and Bluestem. The Fife and the Bluestem are beardless. 

United States. This wheat is drought and rust resistant, 
and for these reasons is quite popular in those regions. It 
is very hard and high in gluten content but loses these 
properties and its resistance to disease if grown in a moist 
climate. The Durum wheats are bearded spring varieties. 



70 WHEAT 

Habits of Growth. — Wheat is similar to barley or oats, 
but it tillers more heavily, sending up several well-devel- 
oped stems from a single seed. It usually receives its plant 
food from the surface soil, but where the subsoil is not too 
hard it will penetrate that also for food and moisture. Like 




Fig. 35. — Kernels of the strains of wheat shown in Fig. 3:1- Turkey Red; 
2. Fife; 3. Velvet Chaff; 4. Bluestem. 

most of the small cereals the stems of wheat are jointed 
and hollow, and grow to a height of three to five feet. 

Preparation of the Seed Bed. — Wheat needs well- 
drained land in a high state of fertiHty. It is useless to 
attempt to grow wheat on light sandy soils or on bottom 
lands that are not well drained. A medium to heavy clay 
or a clay loam well filled with humus is to be preferred for 
wheat. Like other crops, wheat responds to good treat- 
ment, and farmers find themselves amply repaid in in- 
creased yields and good quality for giving extra care to 
the preparation of the seed bed. 



TESTING AND SOWING THE SEED 71 

For spring wheat it is a good practice to have land fall 
plowed, so that the disk harrow may be run over the ground 
in the spring as soon as the soil works well. The disk 
harrow should be followed by the line- tooth harrow so as 
to fine the soil and make a mellow seed bed. 

Winter wheat usually follows a cultivated crop or an- 
other grain crop. The ground is plowed and prepared 
soon after the previous crop is harvested. When put on 
mellow corn land often no plowing is necessary as disking 
is sufficient to prepare a proper seed bed. 

Grading, Testing, and Sowing the Seed. — Wheat should 
be run through a grain grader or fanning mill so that weed 
seeds, dirt, and broken and shriveled kernels can be sepa- 
rated from the seed. By grading carefully the light inferior 
kernels can be separated from the plump heavy ones, and 
thus prevent " running out " which in time occurs where 
the grading of the seed grain is not practiced. All seeds 
planted on the farm should be tested for germination before 
planting. Wheat and other small grains can be tested in 
the same manner that alfalfa seed is tested as described 
on page 144, under the head '' Testing the Seed." 




Fig. 36. — Seeding wheat with a four-horse drill. 



72 



WHEAT 




HARVESTING 73 

Wheat is sown with a drill or with a broadcast seeder at the 
rate of 1.5 to 2 bushels of seed per acre. In sowing with a 
drill, which places all the kernels beneath the surface of 
the soil, usually a less amount of seed need be used than 
when it is sown with a broadcast seeder. Where fall grains 
are sown the furrow made by the drill aids in holding 
snow, which prevents the freezing out of the grains. On 
ground that has been newly cleared and on rocky lands the 
broadcast seeder can be used to advantage. 

Harvesting. — After seeding no further labor is neces- 
sary on the wheat fields until time for harvesting. The 




Fig. 38. — Harvesting wheat with a grain binder. The bundle carrier attachment 
is at the extreme right. 

grain binder is most generally used for this purpose. This 
machine cuts and binds the grain, • and if provided with 
bundle carrier attachment, drops the sheaves at such inter- 
vals as the operator desires. In some parts of Canada and 
in the Western States headers and combined harvesters and 
threshers are used for harvesting the crop. These ma- 
chines can be so gauged as merely to cut the heads off the 



74 



WHEAT 



wheat, and drop the same in an elevator that carries the 
grain through a cyHnder from which it comes out threshed 
and ready for the sack. These machines are used in the 
semiarid regions where grain seldom lodges, and where a 
large acreage is devoted to wheat raising. 

On the medium-sized farms the wheat after being cut 
and bound is put up in shocks and left in the field until 
quite dry. In many localities the wheat is taken directly 
from the shock to the threshing machine. In others, it is 
hauled to a convenient place and stacked or taken directly 




Fig. 39. — Wheat in shocks. 

to the barn and stowed away to await the threshing ma- 
chine. If wheat is left for three or four weeks in the stack 
or in the barn, it will be found in good condition to thresh 
and will keep well in storage. After wheat is hauled from 
the fields and stacked or stored away in barns it goes 
through a sweating process. This lasts for two or three 
weeks depending upon the ripeness and dryness of the 
wheat when stored away. If threshed during the time it is 
going through the sweat, the straw and grain will be found 
to be damp. The straw is tough and will not run through 
the machine readilv and the wheat will heat and mold 



CROP ROTATION 



75 



when stored. If wheat is found to be in the sweat at the 
time of threshing it is well to store in large shallow bins 
where it can be shoveled 
over at frequent inter- 
vals until dry. In the 
wheat-growing regions 
there are many elevators 
where grain is taken im- 
mediately after thresh- 
ing and there cleaned, 
sweated, and stored for 
future shipment. Much 
of the wheat is manu- 
factured into flour at 
the great milling centers 
and sent from there to 
different parts of the 

^Qj.j^ Fig. 40. — A grain elevator. 

Rotation. — Wheat should be grown in a rotation with a 
leguminous and a cultivated crop. Good rotations for 
wheat are the following : 

THREE YEAR ROTATION 
First Year. — Corn, potatoes, or root crops on young sod. 
Second Year. — Wheat, seeded down with clover. 
Third Year. — Clover, first cutting used for hay ; second, turned under, 

FOUR YEAR ROTATION 
First Year. — Corn, peas, potatoes, or root crops on young sod. 
Second Year. — Wheat, seeded down with clover and timothy. 
Third Year. — Clover, two cuttings of clover, pasture in the fall. 
Fourth Year. — Mixed hay, fall plowed for corn. 

FIVE YEAR ROTATION 

The same as the four except the field is not plowed at the close of the 
fourth year of the rotation but is run the fifth as pasture. The five year 
rotation is common where a large amount of stock is kept on the place and 
much pasturage is necessary. 




76 WHEAT 

By following a good systematic rotation where the fields 
are treated with manure at least once in four years and 
also have a cultivated and leguminous crop grown during 
that time, the ground will be kept in a good state of fer- 
tihty and paying crops of wheat can be obtained. 

By growing the wheat crop only one year in four, insect 
enemies and diseases that usually prey upon the crop will 
be eliminated from the soil. The cultivated crop grown 
during the rotation will eradicate the weeds and retain 
moisture ; and the leguminous crop will add nitrogen and 
humus to the soil, which are so necessary in wheat growing. 

Enemies. — Some of the enemies of wheat that have 
prevented good yields in the past are rust, smut, scab, 
Hessian fly, jointworm, chinch bug, army worm, midge, 
stem maggot, wireworm, weevil, and grain moth. 

The treatment for wheat smuts is the same as that used 
for the barley smuts, as outlined in the next chapter. The 
other wheat pests are partially controlled by rotation and 
time of seeding. 

SCORING WHEAT 

Score a sample of wheat according to the following direc- 
tions. 

On a page of your notebook copy the score card on the 
next page and fill the blank spaces with your scores. 
Below your score card give your reasons for your score 
on each of the ten heads. Number your reasons to cor- 
respond with the number of each head on the score card. 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING WHEAT 
I. All kernels should possess the characteristics of their type 

and variety. 

Take loo kernels, constituting a fair sample of the grain. 

Count out the kernels not true to type into three grades. In 



SCORING WHEAT 77 

the grade badly off type cut .1 of a point for each kernel. In 
the next grade cut .1 of a point for two kernels and in the best 
grade cut .i of a point for every three kernels. Repeat three 
times and find the average. 

2. Kernels should be of the same size and shape within the 
limits of the type and variety. 

Proceed as in No. i . 

3. The color should be uniform for the type or variety. Dis- 
coloration should be severely cut. 

Proceed as in No. i. 

4. The sample should be pure wheat. 

Take 100 kernels, constituting a fair sample, count out the 
foreign grains. For each foreign kernel cut .1 of a point. 

5. All the kernels should be large and plump for the class. 
Separate a sample of 100 kernels and proceed as in No. i. 

WHEAT SCORE CARD 

Name and Number of Scorer 

Sample Number Date 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


I. Trueness to type or breed 

characteristics .... 5 












2. Uniformity in size and shape 

of kernels 5 












3. Color of grain 10 










4. Mixture with other grains . 10 








1 


5. Size of kernel . . . . .10 








1 

1 


6. Weed seed, dirt, and other 

foreign material ... 10 












7. Damaged, smutty, or musty 

kernels 15 












8. Weight per bushel . . .15 












Q. Viability 10 












10. Hardness and texture . . 10 












Total 100 













78 WHEAT 

6. The sample should be free from dirt and weed seeds. 
Cut sample .2 of a point for each per cent of foul material. 

7. The sample should be free from musty, smutty, broken, 
or bin-burned kernels, and should have a sweet grain odor. 

From a sample of 100 kernels determine the per cent of 
damaged, smutty, broken, or bin-burned kernels and cut. 2 of a 
point for each per cent. For bad odor, cut sample from i to 10 
points. 

8. The standard is 60 pounds per measured bushel. 
For each pound below 60 pounds cut i point. 

9. Wheat should give a germination of not less than 100 per 
cent. 

Cut .5 of a point for each per cent germination below 100. 

10. The best flour wheats are hard and flinty. 

Cut .5 of a point for each per cent of soft, starchy kernels. 

HOME PROJECTS 

I. Determine the cost of producing an acre of wheat by 
keeping a record of the following items. 

(a) Rent of land (estimated), (b) Cost of fertilizer (if any). 
(c) Cost of plowing, harrowing, seeding, harvesting, and thresh- 
ing. Base these computations on records of actual time spent 
in all labor operations. 

2. Grade wheat for seeding purposes. 

3. Select threshed samples for show purposes. 

4. Grow an acre of pedigree wheat in comparison with 
a common variety. (Types of wheat, barley, and other 
grains that have been materially changed by careful selec- 
tion or crossbreeding for a period of years are designated as 
" varieties." Where a superior grain has been developed 
from a single seed and carried through a course of several 
years of breeding by selection, or hybridization and selec- 
tion, and an accurate record kept of the same, it is known 
as a '^ pedigree " variety.) 



CHAPTER V 
BARLEY 

History. — Barley was known throughout Asia, Africa, 
and parts of Europe before the Christian Era, and was 
grown largely for human consumption. As a bread-making 
grain, it gradually gave way to wheat and rye, and since 
the fifteenth century has been grown chiefly as an animal 




^\ii 



Fig. 41. — A field of barley ready to be harvested. 

food and for malting purposes. The early settlers of 
America brought barley from Europe to the colonies and 
disseminated it to various sections of the United States. 
Barley can be grown over a wide latitude, but is restricted 
to certain states and locaHties on account of soil conditions. 

79 



8o BARLEY 

Classification. — Barley is commonly classified as six- 
rowed, four-rowed, and two-rowed. The four-rowed does 
not appear to be a distinct variety but a variation of 
the six-rowed class. There are bearded, beardless, and 
varieties without hulls, in each of the above classes. There 




Fig. 42. — Some types of barley. From left to right, beardless, two-rowed, six-rowed. 

are also fall and spring varieties of barley, as is the case 
with wheat. The term " variety " is used by seedsmen, 
plant breeders, and farmers in a wider and less rigid sense 
than that applied by the botanist. 



HABITS OF GROWTH 



8i 



Habits of Growth. — Barley is an erect annual plant. 
It does not stool or tiller so heavily as rye, wheat, or oats. 
On fertile soil, however, as many as six or seven stalks will 
come from a single seed. It does not grow so tall as rye, 
wheat, or oats, and the leaves of the 
plant are broader during the earlier 
period of growth. It matures earUer 
than most varieties of wheat and 
oats, and consequently can be har- 
vested earlier. Its roots grow near 
the surface of the soil and it does 
not feed so extensively as oats or 
wheat, therefore it requires a well- 
subdued, mellow, rich soil with fer- 
tility near the surface. No crop 
responds more readily to good tillage, 
and the prudent farmer soon finds 
that it pays to put extra cultivation 
with disk and fine-tooth harrow upon 
the land to render plant food avail- 
able and to prepare a good mellow 
seed bed for this crop. It is use- 
less to try to grow barley upon 
poor sandy lands or worn-out soils ; 
neither does it do well on ground 
that has been newly cleared, or is 
poorly drained. 

Fall plowing is preferable on clay 
or clay loam soils as the winter 
weathering helps to disintegrate the soil particles and to 
secure good tilth. The ground should be disked as early 
as it will work well in the spring and then finished with 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 6 




Plants of pedigree 
barley. 



82 BARLEY 

a fine-tooth harrow. Ground that is " lumpy " after 
disking should be run over with roller or planker previous 
to harrowing. If ground is spring-plowed it should be run 
over with fine-tooth harrow the same day that the plowing 
is done, to prevent the surface of the furrows from becom- 
ing dry and hard. 

Testing the Seed. — All seed barley should be tested for 
viabihty before sowing, as its vitahty is often injured by 
heating in the stack or bin. If the seed is of low vitality 
and does not test as high as 90 per cent it should be re- 
garded as inferior, and new seed should be purchased or 
the ground upon which the barley was to be sown put into 
other crops. 

Sowing the Seed. — The seeding of barley should follow 
that of oats and spring wheat, as an early spring frost is 
more injurious to young barley plants than to other small 
cereals. A drill or broadcast seeder is commonly used and 
the barley is sown at the rate of 1.5 to 2.5 bushels per acre. 
Where it is desirable to seed the land down to clover, 
timothy, or alfalfa with barley as a nurse crop, one bushel 
of seed per acre is sufficient. 

Harvesting the Grain. — Objection has been made in the 
past to the barley beards during harvesting and subsequent 
handling. This objection has been largely removed since 
the introduction of binders, self-feeder attachments to 
threshing machines, and straw stackers. The prejudice 
against the use of the straw for feed or bedding for stock 
has little foundation. 

Barley should be harvested when well ripened and when 
straw and heads are of a golden yellow color. If cut when 
the straw is green, the kernels will shrink and assume an 
undesirable ashen color. If the bundle carrier attachment 



HARVESTING THE GRAIN 



83 



to the harvester drops the bundles at the right points, little 
handling will be necessary. The shocking should be done 
on the day of the cutting. By putting up round shocks, 
using eight bundles for foundation and two bundles for 
cap sheaves, the barley will be protected from dew, sun- 
light, and rains which decrease its market value by injury 
to its color and vitaUty. 

The length of time that barley should be left in the shock 
depends upon the weather, the ripeness of the crop when 




Fig. 44. — A field of barley in shock. 

cut, and the abundance of weeds bound up with the barley. 
After the barley has had ample time to dry thoroughly it 
should be drawn to the barn and stored therein or stacked 
conveniently for threshing outside. The lack of sufficient 
help and barn room has led many barley growers to thresh 
directly from the shock. This practice does not permit the 
barley to go through its natural sweating process while in 
the straw. It will then sweat in the bin and extreme heat 



84 BARLEY 

will often accompany the sweating process. This causes 
deterioration in quality that can in no way be overcome 
by subsequent treatment. 

Threshing. — If the farmer has insufificient room in which 
to store the sheaf barley, it is best to stack outside and 
leave the barley in the stack at least a month before thresh- 
ing. If the barley is stacked or drawn to the barn, the cap 
sheaf bundles should be stored and threshed separately, as 
much discolored grain will be found in these bundles and 
this should not be mixed with other barley. Care should 
be taken while threshing not to have the beards cut too 
close to the kernel. If the kernel is exposed, it injures ger- 
mination and favors the action of molds during the sprout- 
ing process. 

Marketing the Crop. — Barley serves as a ready money 
crop for most growers and is usually put on the market soon 
after threshing. It is not a good practice to put weather- 
beaten or damaged barley on the market as the price will 
be cut severely even though the feeding quality is but 
slightly impaired. It is far better to use such injured 
barley on the farm and secure both feeding and fertilizing 
value from it. 

Farmers should grow but one variety of barley and that 
of the very best. Varieties should not be mixed when 
being put on the market either as seed or malting barley. 
Different varieties of barley when placed on the malting 
floor germinate at different periods of time. This causes a 
loss and a corresponding reduction in price. The maltster 
and the barley pearler desire a barley of one distinct type. 
This should be uniform in quahty and size of berry. 

Rotation. — Barley should be grown in a three or four 
years rotation where it follows corn, potatoes, peas, or root 



FORMALDEHYDE TREATMENT 85 

crops that have been grown on plowed sod land. The 
land should be seeded down to clover and grasses at the 
same time or immediately after the barley is sown. By 
following this system of rotation the seed is put into ground 
that has an abundant supply of vegetable mold occasioned 
by the decayed sod. 

Diseases and Insect Enemies. — Barley is comparatively 
free from diseases and insect enemies. It is, however, 
affected with rust, leaf stripe, and smut. Little has yet 
been accompHshed in preventing rust but good work has 
been done in the eradication of smuts. In a few instances 
rustproof varieties of grains have been bred for distinct 
localities. 

Eradication of Barley Smut. — Barley is attacked by 
two varieties of smut, — the loose smut and the closed 
smut, the former being the more prevalent and the harder 
to eradicate. The loose smut is noticeable as soon as 
barley begins to head ; the black smutty heads may be 
seen pushing out from the sheath in which they are inclosed. 
A few days after the smut makes its first appearance it will 
have ripened, and the spores will be wafted by the wind to 
a hiding place in the immature kernels, where they remain 
secure until the kernels are planted the following year. 
After the smut is blown away nothing is seen to indicate 
disease except the light blackened tip of the barley plant 
where the spike should be. 

Formaldehyde Treatment for Barley Smut. — For eradi- 
cation of loose smut submerge the barley for two hours 
after being sacked in formaldehyde solution. Formalde- 
hyde solution is made by putting one pint of formaldehyde 
in 30 gallons of water. The above treatment will also 
eradicate leaf stripe. 



86 BARLEY 

Hot Water Treatment for Smut. — Place the barley in 
gunny sacks and submerge in cold water for 12 hours. 
Remove and drain for an hour, then submerge for 5 
minutes in a cask containing hot water, held at a constant 
temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit. It is well to warm 
the barley before placing it in the hot water by submerg- 
ing it in water at a slightly lower temperature for a minute 
or two, otherwise the temperature of the water in the cask 
will be materially lowered. Boiling water should be kept 
near at hand, and added at intervals to keep the temperature 
nearly constant. In adding the boiUng water, it should 
never be allowed to come into direct contact with the 
barley, as the vitality of the seed will be injured or de- 
stroyed. 

After the hot water treatment, the seed should be 
spread upon the barn floor to cool before sowing. It 
should be sown the same day or the day after treat- 
ment, otherwise it will sprout and difficulty will be found 
in getting it through the seeder or drill. 

The margin of temperature which is effective for the 
destruction of the smut spore is so narrow that the operator 
must be suppHed with a good standard thermometer and 
watch the process closely. If the water in which the seed 
barley is submerged is but slightly above 130 degrees, the 
seed will be injured, and if a few degrees lower the smut 
spores will not be killed. On account of the liability of 
error it is advisable for barley growers to treat only a sufh- 
cient amount of seed to sow two or three acres and save 
seed for future sowing from this particular field which will 
have little or no smut in it. The closed smut of barley is 
readily eradicated by the formaldehyde method, if treated 
as recommended for oats in Chapter VI. 



SCORING BARLEY 



87 



SCORING BARLEY 

Judge samples of barley. Use the score card as shown 
below, and note carefully the points to be observed and rules for 
cuts. After a little practice it can be done quickly and accu- 
rately. Copy the score card in your notebook and fill the blank 
spaces with your scores. Below it write your reasons for your 
score on each of the ten heads of the score cards. Number 
your reasons to correspond with the points on the score card. 

BARLEY SCORE CARD 

Name and Number of Scorer 

Sample Number Date 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


I. Trueness to type or breed 

characteristics ... 5 












2. Uniformity in size and shape 

of kernels 5 












3. Color of grain 15 












4. Mixture with other grains . 10 












5. Size of kernel 10 












6. Weed seed, dirt, and other 

foreign material . . . 10 












7. Damaged, smutty, or musty 

kernels 10 












8. Weight per bushel ... 15 












9. ViabiHty 10 












10. Texture 10 












Total 100 













88 BARLEY 

DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING BARLEY 

1. All kernels of the sample should resemble one another in 
shape, color, and general appearance. 

2. Kernels should be the same size and shape throughout 
to secure uniformity. 

3. Grain should all be light or golden yellow in color. 

4. It must be pure barley. There should be no mixture of 
oats, wheat, or any other grain. 

5. The sample as a whole should consist of large and plump 
grains, not small or shrunken ones. 

6. The sample should be free from dirt and weed seeds. 
The per cent of foul material is determined by the use of 
sieves and scales. Should the foul material consist of noxious 
weed seeds, the cut on sample should be made more severe 
than if it is composed of practically harmless materials. 

7. The sample should be free from smutty, musty, or bin- 
burned kernels. Take 100 average kernels and count the num- 
ber of smutty or otherwise injured kernels. Repeat this three 
times and find the average of the three trials. The number 
found will be the per cent of poor kernels. 

8. Good barley should weigh 48 or more pounds to the 
measured bushel. The weight per bushel may be determined 
by the use of the Winchester measure. 

9. Barley should give a germination of not less than 95 per 
cent. 

10. Sample should be free from excessive discoloration, 
sprouted kernels, immaturity, and soft berries. 

RULES FOR CUTS 

I. Take 100 kernels constituting a fair sample of the grain 
and count out the number not true to type. Repeat three 
times and find average of the three trials. For each kernel off 
type, cut .1 of a point. 



HOME PROJECTS 



89 



2. Proceed as above and for each small or shrunken kernel 
cut .1 of a point. 

3. For discoloration cut according to 
extent. If only slightly discolored cut 
I point, or more as per cent of discolora- 
tion increases. 

4. Weigh the whole sample, separate 
and weigh the foreign grain. This will 
give per cent of other grains. For every 
per cent so found cut .5 of a point. 

5. Sample should consist of large 
plump kernels, not small ones. Cut as 
judgment dictates, considering variety 
characteristics. 

6. Cut sample i point for each per 
cent of foul material. 

7. Cut sample i point for each per 
cent of smutty, bin-burned, or musty 
kernels. 

8. Cut I point for each pound below 
48 pounds in weight. 

9. Cut .5 of a point for each per cent 
the germination falls below 95 per cent. 

10. Cut as judgment dictates in ac- 
cordance with extent of discoloration and 
number of soft or sprouted kernels. ^liarfty for elffit ° 




HOME PROJECTS 



I. Grade seed barley before seeding. If a large quantity of 
barley is on hand, which after seeding time will be used for 
feed, it is well to make the grading very close, retaining for seed 
tess than half of all the barley put through the grader. When 
shriveled and shrunken kernels, which are always low in vitality, 
are eliminated from the seed, the "running out process" will 



90 BARLEY 

be entirely overcome. A fanning mill with proper sieves is 
necessary to carry out this project. 

2. Treat barley with formaldehyde to destroy closed smut. 

3. Treat barley with hot water to destroy loose smut. 

4. Pick smutty heads from one tenth of an acre plot as soon 
as they appear, and save the remainder for the increase field. 

5. Grow an acre of pedigree barley. Compare the yield and 
quality with common or scrub barley. 

6. Find the cost of producing an acre of barley. 

7. Prepare sheaf samples of barley for show purposes. 



CHAPTER VI 
OATS 

The original home of the oat plant is Asia, where it was 
grown at an early date as an animal food and used occa- 
sionally in seasons of partial failure of crops as a human 
food. Its value as an animal food and the ease with which 




Fig. 46. — A field of pedigree oats ready to be harvested. 

it could be grown caused its rapid dissemination through- 
out Europe and America. It is regarded as an excellent 
food for horses. It is used also for human food, as oatmeal 
and other breakfast foods. Oat straw is fed to stock and 
is extensively used for bedding. 

91 



92 



OATS 



Habits of Growth. — The oat belongs to the grass family. 
It usually grows from 2 to 4 feet high, depending upon the 
variety and the nature of the soil upon which it is grown. 
The roots of the plant are long and fibrous, and run down 
to a depth of i to 2 feet on rich mellow soils in which 
drainage is good. The plant resembles wheat and barley 
in its early stages of growth, but later it branches more 
profusely and is more leafy. 

Varieties. — There are numerous so-called varieties, the 
names of which have been apphed by seedsmen and growers. 




Fig. 47. — Different kinds of oat panicles. The one at the left is an example of side 
panicles; the otljer three are those of open panicles. The one on the extreme 
right is Wisconsin Pedigree No. i. 

For all practical purposes they can be classified according 
to color and time of maturity. There are white, yellow, 
black, gray, and red oats ; and early, medium, and late 
strains in each variety. Some of the prominent varieties 
grown in the Northern States are Swedish Select, Silver 
Mine, Big Four, American Banner, White Bonanza, White 



VARIETIES 



93 



''"i 






_J^^K'^ 






•w^ 


WmmL- 








1 




IL 






1 








P: 




M 


%■ 




« 











94 OATS 

Russian, and Champion. The Sixty Day or Kherson rep- 
resents one of the best examples of the early short-straw 
varieties. This variety is grown extensively on the low 
rich grounds where the later maturing and long-straw 
varieties are likely to rust and lodge. 

The . agricultural experiment stations of America and 
Europe are now breeding special varieties of oats that 
are superior in yield and quality to the common oats used 
in past years. 

Soil and Climatic Conditions. — Oats can be grown under 
a wide variation of soil and climatic conditions. For best 
production a cool climate and a rich clay loam are most 
favorable. Oats may serve as a crop for newly cleared 
lands or they can be grown on old soils. They are an 
excellent nurse crop with which to seed down fields to the 
various grasses and clovers. When used as a nurse crop 
with clover only about i bushel of seed is used per acre, 
otherwise oats are usually sown at the rate of from 2 to 3 
bushels per acre. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — Oats are ready for the 
harvester in 80 to 1 20 days after seeding and should be cut 
as soon as the leaves and stalks have turned yellow. When 
used for hay they should be cut while yet green but after 
fully headed. If used for hay the oats are cut with a mower, 
and in curing are handled Kke our common grasses or 
clovers. When harvested for the grain, oats should re- 
main in the shock for 3 to 5 days and then be hauled into 
the barn or stacked. Before threshing they should be left 
in the barn or stack for 2 to 3 weeks to go through the 
'' sweat," otherwise they will heat in the bin after thresh- 
ing. Threshing directly from the field reduces the quality 
of the oats and should be condemned. 



OAT RUST 



95 



Rotation. — Oats should be grown in a three- or four-year 
rotation and follow corn, peas, potatoes, or root crops. 
It is best to seed down to clover and timothy so as to have 
a hay crop following the oat crop. When oats are grown 
continuously on the same field, depletion of the soil soon 
follows. 

Diseases. — Smut and rust are the two principal diseases 
affecting oats, and often a fourth to a half of the entire 




Fig. 49. — Shocking oats. 

crop is ruined by these diseases. Rust may be controlled 
by practicing a strict rotation of crops and by sowing the 
early maturing varieties early in the season. 

Oat Rust. — Oats are more likely to rust on river bottoms 
or on low rich soils where the drainage is not good. Near 
lakes and rivers where the country is subject to fogs the 
development of the rust spores is greatly facilitated. The 



96 



OATS 



volunteer crop which grows in the fall from the oats shelled 
by harvesting is usually more or less affected and these 
spores affect the following crop, hence the necessity of 
rotation. Oats that are immune from rust can be bred 



for certain locahties, but if carried 




Fig. 50. — Two heads of oats grown from the same lot 
of seed. The head on the right was grown from 
seed that was treated to prevent smut; the other 
was grown from untreated seed. 



a distance and put 
under a different 
environment, they 
seem to lose this im- 
munity and become 
as susceptible as are 
other varieties. 

Oat Smut. — The 
oat smut is a dis- 
ease that is carried 
over from year to 
year through the 
infected seed, and 
continues to in- 
crease until over 
half of the crop 
becomes contami- 
nated. The plant 
becomes infected 
through spores 
which find lodgment 
beneath the oat hull 
remain there until the 
The spore then sends 
culms of the plant 



during the flowering period, and 

oat is sown and starts to sprout. 

up tiny threads through the several 

and blasts the heads by causing a mass of smutty spores 

to destroy practically all oats on the affected plants. 

These spores are wafted off when the oats are in 



REMEDY FOR OAT SMUT 



97 



blossom and find lodgment beneath the glumes of healthy 
plants. 

Remedy for Oat Smut. — A simple remedy, known as 
the formaldehyde treatment, will effectually eradicate all 
smut. By making up a solution of a pint of formalde- 
hyde in 36 gallons of water and submerging oats that are 
loosely sacked for 10 minutes in the solution, the spores 
will be killed and no smut will appear in the resultant crop. 
It is well after removing the sacks from the solution to 
empty oats on the threshing floor and cover them for a 




Fig- 51- — Drying oats on a platform after soaking the grain in formaldehyde. 

few hours with canvas or blankets to allow the formalde- 
hyde fumes to act effectually on the smut spores. Oats can 
usually be sown with a drill or seeder a day or two after the 
treatment. Where a farmer has a large acreage of oats to 
sow it is best to make up a large quantity of solution and 
put it in a tank or several barrels so as to treat several sacks 
of seed at one time. Special machines which make the 
work easier are now on the market. Any arrangement by 
which each individual seed is brought in contact with the 
solution and held there for a short period of time is effectual. 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 7 



98 



OATS 



SCORING OATS 

Judge a sample of oats, using the directions given below. 
Copy the following score card in your notebook and fill the 
blank spaces with your scores. Below it write your reason 
for each score. Number the reasons to correspond with the 
points on the score card. 

OAT SCORE CARD 

Name and Number of Scorer 

Sample Number Date 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


I. Trueness to type or breed 

characteristics .... 5 












2. Uniformity in size and shape 

of kernels 5 












3. Color of grain 15 












4. Mixture with other grains . 10 












5. Size of kernel 10 












6. Weed seed, dirt, and other 

foreign material . . .10 












7. Damaged, smutty, or musty 

kernels 15 












8. Weight per bushel . . .15 












0. Percentage of meat to hull 5 












10. Viability 10 












Total 100 













DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING OATS 

I. All kernels should possess the characteristics of their 
class and variety. Take 100 kernels constituting a fair sample 
of the grain. Count out the kernels into three grades. In the 



SCORING OATS 99 

grade badly off type cut .1 of a point for each kernel. In the 
next grade cut .1 of a point for two kernels, and in the best 
grade no cut is made. 

2. Kernels should be of the same size and shape within the 
limits of the class and variety. Proceed as in No. i. 

3. White oats should be white; yellow oats, bright yellow; 
black oats, glistening black. Proceed as in No. i. 

4. The sample should be pure oats. Take 100 kernels con- 
stituting a fair sample, count out the foreign grains. For each 
foreign kernel cut .5 of a point. 

5. All the kernels of the sample should be large and plump 
for the variety. Proceed as in No. i. 

6. The sample should be free from dirt and weed seeds. 
Cut sample .5 of a point for each per cent of foul material. 

7. The sample should be free from smutty, musty, bin- 
burned, shelled, or damaged kernels, and should have a sweet 
grain odor. Determine the per cent of damaged, smutty, or 
bin-burned kernels, and cut .5 of a point for each per cent. 
Cut sample for bad odor from i to 10 points. 

8. The standard weight is 32 pounds per measured bushel. 
Cut I point for each pound below 32 pounds. 

9. The average per cent of meat for American oats is 70. 
Examine the thickness of hull and length of tip, and cut accord- 
ing to judgment. 

10. Oats should germinate 100 per cent. Cut .5 of a point for 
each per cent germination below 100. 

EXERCISES 

1. What is the legal weight of a bushel of oats in your state? 

2. What varieties of oats are grown in your locality? 

3. What kind of soil is best for oats? 

4. When are oats usually sown in your locality? When 
harvested? 

5. What uses are made of oat straw? Of the grain? 



lOO 



OATS 




Fig. 52. — A sample of 
oats for exhibition. 



HOME PROJECTS 

1. Treat seed oats for prevention of 
smut, by use of formaldehyde, in the fol- 
lowing manner. 

Fill an empty kerosene barrel with 
water to within a foot of the top. Add 
to this water one pint of 40 per cent 
formaldehyde solution, stirring constantly. 
Place oats in burlap sacks and suspend 
each sack in the formaldehyde solution, 
completely immersing the sack for ten 
minutes. Remove and spread out on 
barn floor to dry. 

2. Grade oats for seeding purposes. 

3. Select sheaf samples for show pur- 
poses. 

4. Select threshed samples for show 
purposes. 

5. Grow an acre of pedigree oats and 
compare the yield with that of an acre 
of common oats. 

6. Determine the cost of producing 
an acre of oats. Keep a record of each 
item of the cost. 



CHAPTER VII 
RYE 

Rye belongs to the grass family and is a near relative of 
wheat. It is divided into two main classes known as 
spring rye and winter rye, each of which is divided into 
numerous so-called varieties. 

Habits of Growth. — Spring rye is sown in the spring 
and is harvested from 75 to 100 days after sowing. It does 
not grow so rank as the fall or winter rye and gives a smaller 
yield, in consequence of which it has not become popular. 
The principal rye crop of America and Europe is winter 
rye and this discussion is confined to that crop. 

The growth of rye is similar to that of wheat, but it 
stools more heavily and withstands drought better. It is 
a taller plant and will produce a crop on land that is too low 
in fertihty to produce good wheat. It is bearded but not 
so heavily as to make the beards obnoxious. The straw is 
clean and strong, and it seldom lodges unless put on very 
rich mucky soils and sown too thickly. It has perfect 
flowers and most of them are self-fertilized. Its blossoms 
are more open than those of most small grains and con- 
siderable crossing may occur. 

Seed Beds. — While fair crops of rye can be secured on 
soils too low in fertihty for other cereals, it responds quickly 
to good treatment on better grades of soil. It may be 
sown on sod land that has grown a crop of hay, or it may 
follow potatoes, corn, or peas to advantage. 



I02 



RYE 



The ground should be prepared by plowing immediately 
after the above-named crops have been removed. The 
drag should follow the plow immediately. If ground is 
plowed and harrowed in July or August, in northern lati- 
tudes it can lie until September before sowing the seed. 
Just before seeding, the disk or other cultivator should be 
run over the ground. The seed is sown with a drill or broad- 
cast seeder, using from li to 2 bushels of seed per acre. 




Fig- 53- — Harrowing, rolling, and seeding a rye field. 



The smaller amount of seed should be sown on the richer 
grades of soils as the rye stools more strongly on land high 
in fertility. The seed can be tested by the method given in 
Chapter II. (See page 30.) 

If the ground has been recently plowed and the land is 
loose and dry, rolling, after seeding, will assist germination, 
as through this process the soil particles are brought in 
close contact with each individual seed. The fine- tooth 
harrow should be run over the ground once after rolling or 
before sowing the seed if rolling is not done. If sowing is 



HARVESTING AND THRESHING 



103 



done early in September, sufficient growth will be obtained 
for good fall and winter pasture. Rye can be pastured 
through the fall, winter, and spring without apparent in- 
jury to the crop. It is one of the very best crops with 
which to seed grasses and clovers. The grass seed can be 
sown with a seeder attachment 
to the drill at the same time 
that the rye is seeded in the fall, 
and the clover seeding can be 
done the following spring. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — 
Rye is harvested in the same 
way as other small grains and 
is shocked and later hauled to 
the barns for storage or put in 
large stacks to await threshing. 
When stacked or put in barns 
it should be left three or four 
weeks before threshing in order 
that it may go through the 
sweat, which is common to all 
grains and forage plants after 
harvesting. If threshed while 
in the sweat, the straw is tough 
and the grain moist and unfit 
for grinding. Rye is usually 
threshed like other grain, and 
is then put in bins for storage. If threshed from the 
field or from stacks before going through the sweat, it 
should be stored in shallow bins and shoveled over fre- 
quently until thoroughly dry. 

Uses. — Rye is used for the manufacture of flour. A 




Fig. 54. — A well-developed plant of 
pedigree fall rye from a single seed. 



I04 RYE 

considerable amount is used also for distilling purposes. 
The price on the general market is usually somewhat lower 
than for wheat. Rye flour makes a -bread darker in color 
and firmer in texture than that made from wheat. Rye 
bread when well made is very palatable and is considered 
as nourishing as that made from wheat. A small quantity 
of wheat flour is frequently mixed with rye flour which 
makes kneading easier, whitens the bread, and improves 
its flavor. The flavor of rye bread is also modified by 
kneading a sprinkling of caraway seed in the dough. 

Rye is fed to farm animals and makes a fair feed when 
mixed with corn or other grains. If fed alone as a grain 
ration to cows, it gives an undesirable flavor to the milk. 
It is occasionally used for hay and should then be cut at 
the heading stage. The bran and shorts from rye can be 
mixed with wheat bran and fed to good advantage. 

Rye as a Pasture or Cover Crop. — Rye is considered 
excellent as a pasture or cover crop. When rye is grown 
merely as a pasture or cover crop, it is well to sow about 
thirty pounds of fall vetch seed per acre with the rye. 
The vetch is a strong nitrogen gatherer and is relished by 
all farm animals. This practice enables the farmer to 
add nitrogen and humus to the soil by the growing of the 
vetch, and to improve the feeding value of the pasture 
crop. The rye and vetch can be turned under in the 
spring, and corn, potatoes, or buckwheat grown on the 
same ground. If desired for hay, the mixture should 
be left until the vetch is in blossom, when both can be cut 
and made into hay. The rye acts as a support for the vetch 
and keeps it from the ground during the growing period. 
Difficulty is sometimes experienced in curing the hay, but 
it can be readily cured in good weather. 



DISEASES 



105 



Rye straw is used extensively as packing material and 
for the manufacture of straw articles. It is also used in 
the manufacture of paper and as stuffing for horse collars. 
When it is put on the market for these purposes it is either 
hand threshed or run into special machinery which threshes 
out the heads and leaves the straw in an uncrushed condition. 




Fig. 55. — Excellence of straw in an average rye field. 



Diseases. — The disease most prevalent in rye is ergot. 
This disease makes its appearance on several of our 
grasses, but is most common on rye. When rye is thus 
affected it should not be fed to stock. Ergot is a poison 
to animals and may cause serious sickness or death. It 
appears on the spike as one or several enlarged black or 
purple kernels and grows rapidly, reaching a length of a 
half inch and over. Like other spore diseases after reach- 
ing a certain stage of growth, fine dust-Hke material is 
given off which infects the remainder of the crop. 

Change of seed and rotation of crops is recommended 



io6 



RYE 



whenever ergot is found. The grain secured from fields 
where ergot is noticeable should be thoroughly screened 

and graded before being used for 
feed or flour. Rye is subject to 
rust, but not to the same extent 
as wheat and oats. Little, if 
any, injury is experienced from 
insect enemies. 

Rotation. — A rotation in 
which rye is grown one year out 
of four is preferable. The rye 
can follow peas, potatoes, corn, 
or any crop that is grown on 
sod. Grasses and clovers can 
be seeded with the rye crop to 
good advantage and hay can be 
cut for two succeeding years. 

EXERCISES 

Fig. 56. — Rye head infected with I. Scorc samples of rye. The 
®'^^°*' score card for rye is the same 

as that used for wheat and the directions for scoring rye are 
identical with those for wheat. (See pages 76-78.) 

2. Outline the method of growing rye in your locahty. 
Does the text suggest any means by which the local method 
may be improved? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Select a sheaf of rye and threshed samples for show pur- 
poses. 

2. Grow an acre of select rye. Compare the yield and 
quality with that of an acre of common rye. 

3. Find the cost of producing an acre of rye. 




CHAPTER VIII 
BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat is not a true cereal but is usually classified 
as such by grain men. The name is of German origin and 
is probably a corruption of the German huchweizen which 
means beechwheat. The shape of the kernel of buck- 
wheat resembles the beechnut, and the starch within the 
kernel resembles wheat starch, hence the name. Buck- 
wheat belongs to the same family as the well-known bind- 
weed, smartweed, knotweed, sorrel, and yellow dock. It 
may have been developed from one of the bindweeds, 
sometimes called wild buckwheat. 

Varieties. — There are three distinct varieties : common 
buckwheat, notch-seeded buckwheat, and Siberian or 
Tartary buckwheat. The common buckwheat is the one 
of greatest importance. To this species belong the Silver 
Hull, the Japanese, and the common gray varieties. These 
are grown most extensively in this country. The Silver 
Hull seems to be most popular with millers, some of whom 
claim that it makes more and better flour than the other 
varieties. Some growers contend that the Japanese is a 
heavier yielder and will stand more sunshine and hot 
weather without injury than will the Silver Hull. 

Habits of Growth. — The buckwheat seed puts forth but 
a single erect shoot which branches treelike above the 
ground and grows to a height of three feet. The root 

107 



lo8 BUCKWHEAT 

growth is not extensive and consists of a main root with 
sufficient branches to hold the plant firmly in the ground 
and to secure adequate moisture and nourishment for its 




Fig. 57. — Silver Hull buckwheat on left ; Japanese buckwheat on right. 

existence. It grows and gives returns on soil too poor for 
the growing of ordinary crops. Buckwheat responds readily 
to good treatment and by proper preparation of the seed 
bed and the use of manure the yield can be greatly in- 
creased. 

Preparation of Seed Bed. — The land on which buck- 
wheat is grown is usually plowed late in the spring, a 'few 
days before sowing. This method is not the best practice, 
however, as the soil should have ample time to settle 
before seeding. It is better to plow early in the spring 
and to run a fine-tooth harrow over the field at weekly 
intervals until seeding. Where late plowing is resorted 
to the roller and fine-tooth harrow should be used imme- 
diately after plowing, and again, after seeding for the 
purpose of compacting the soil, restoring capillary action 
through the soil, and pressing the soil particles closely 
around the seed to facilitate sprouting. 



HARVESTING AND THRESHING 



109 



Sowing the Seed. — In northern latitudes the seed should 
be sown from May 20 to July i and at the rate of 3 pecks 
of Silver Hull or 4 pecks of the Japanese variety per acre. 
The seeds of the Japanese are larger, hence a heavier seed- 
ing is necessary to secure the same number of plants per 
acre. The late sowing of the buckwheat is done in order 
to carry the blossoming period beyond the hot winds and 
sunshine of July which are disastrous to the crop at the 
blossoming stage. Blossoms appear when the plant is 
partially grown and continue until the time of harvest. 




Fig. 58. — A field of Silver Hull buckwheat in blossom. 

Much of the green buckwheat ripens while the buckwheat 
is in the shock. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — Buckwheat can be 
harvested with the binder but when so cut it should not 
be bound but laid off in unbound sheaves. For this pur- 
pose the old-fashioned self-rake reaper can be used to 



no BUCKWHEAT 

advantage. After it has lain in the swath for a few days 
it can be bound loosely and set up in shocks. Usually it 
is not stored away in barns to go through the sweat but 
is hauled directly from the field to the threshing machine. 
An ordinary grain thresher is used, but it is supplied 
with blank concaves or concaves with all but two or three 
of the teeth removed, so that the buckwheat will not be 
hulled or damaged. After threshing, buckwheat should be 
stored in bins where it can be shoveled over to facilitate 
drying. Only good dry buckwheat can be used for flour. 

Enemies. — Buckwheat is usually free from insects 
and disease enemies. It is a great weed destroyer and 
is known as one of our cleaning crops. It grows rapidly, 
and the many broad leaves shut out the sunlight, and 
make it almost impossible for weeds to thrive in the 
same field. 

Uses. — Buckwheat is used in making pancake flour for 
human consumption and as a ground feed for farm ani- 
mals. The straw is of little value except for bedding. 
Buckwheat is a prolific flowering plant and bees feed greedily 
upon it. The honey made from it is inferior to that made 
from white clover and is darker in color. 

Rotation. — Little attention is paid to putting buckwheat 
in any definite rotation. It is usually sown on lands where 
other crops have been destroyed. Occasionally it is used 
merely as a cleaning crop on weedy lands or grown on hard 
soils and turned under to add humus to the soil. 

EXERCISES 

I. Judge samples of buckwheat. The score card and direc- 
tions given for wheat may be used in judging buckwheat. (See 
pages 76-78.) 



HOME PROJECTS iii 

2. If Silver Hull buckwheat is sown at the rate of 40 pounds 
per acre, how many bushels of seed will it take to sow 40 acres 
of land? Buckwheat is estimated at 48 pounds per bushel. 

3. If the buckwheat yields at the rate of fourteen bushels 
per acre and sells at $1.25 per hundredweight, how much will 
be received for the crop? 

4. If, in milling buckwheat, one half of the total weight is 
flour, how much flour can be secured from the buckwheat 
grown from the above field? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Sow Silver Hull and Japanese buckwheat in separate 
plots to determine yield and desirability of each. 

2. Grow buckwheat on land in which corn has been killed 
by flood or cutworms. 

3. Grow buckwheat on newly cleared lands for the purpose 
of subduing the soil. 

4. Grow a small plot of Silver Hull buckwheat for making 
buckwheat flour. 

5. Grow both Japanese and Silver Hull buckwheat for seed. 



CHAPTER IX 
GRAIN BREEDING 

Grain improvement may be brought about through 
selection and crossing. These methods are appHed to the 
improvement of wheat, oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, and 
other grains ; also to peas, beans, and forage plants. 

Selection Method. — Foundation stock from the best- 
known varieties of grain grown is first secured. These 
varieties are sown in one-twentieth acre plots and the 
plants are studied during the growing period. The best 
heads from loo or more plants are selected when mature, 
the kernels graded, and the heavy plump ones retained. 
These select kernels are sown the following year and 
the grains are again graded as before. By pursuing this 
method of selecting, the best grains for seed, oats, wheat, 
barley, and other small grains are greatly improved in 
quaHty and yield per acre. 

Centgener Method. — A better method of breeding 
known as the centgener method is now used quite exten- 
sively by plant breeders. By this system a thousand 
kernels of the grain desired for foundation stock are used, 
and the individual kernels are planted 4 inches apart 
in the foundation or " mother " bed. Border rows are 
grown around the outside of the bed which are later dis- 
carded. Only the plants growing under uniform conditions 
inside of the border rows are retained. These plants are 



CENTGENER METHOD 113 

studied during the growing period and those showing supe- 
rior quaHties are marked by placing a stick or a wire rod 
beside each. Twenty plants are usually selected from 
each bed. The heads are clipped from these plants and 
put into separate envelopes. The twenty envelopes each 
containing the progeny of individual plants are weighed 
separately, and the ten having the highest weight are re- 
tained, the lighter ones being discarded. 

The second year the seeds in each of the ten selected 
envelopes are sown an equal distance apart in little square 
plots, known as centgener beds. A study of the plants is 
made during the growing period and the best heads from 
at least ten of the best plants are secured. These heads 
are placed in envelopes, the shrunken kernels being dis- 
carded, since only the best seeds are to be used for the 
following year. 

The third year the process of the second year is repeated, 
and in the fourth year the entire yield of each of the ten 




Fig. 59. — Two centgeners of wheat. 
AND H. PLANT PROD. 8 



IT4 



GRAIN BREEDING 



centgener plots is 
compared with that 
of each of the other 
nine, and the grain 
from the four plots 
in the test giving 
greatest yields is re- 
tained for increase 
plots. 

In the fourth year 
sufficient seed is se- 
cured from the 
centgener plots to sow broadcast at least one square rod 
of each variety, after casting out light seed. These are 
called increase plots. From the increase plots sufficient 
seed is produced to sow a tenth of an acre from which the 
yield of grain is sufficient to seed one acre. An accurate 
record having been kept of this process for six successive 
years, the variety becomes a pedigreed variety. 

Head-to-row Method. — This method is used extensively 
by plant improvers, and enables the operator to select in 




Fig. 60. — Planting with a centgener machine. 




Fig. 61. — Increase plots of different grains. Rows from single heads at extreme right. 



HEAD-TO-ROW METHOD 115 

the shortest possible time various plants that possess high 
yielding power and other desirable characteristics. It is 
a quick method of grain breeding by selection. 

Land that is uniform in fertility must be used for the 
selection beds. The grain plants from which the heads are 
taken must be selected from fields or mother beds where 




Fig. 62. — Head-to-row method of plant breeding. One head of wheat is planted in 

each row. 

several thousand plants are grown under uniform conditions. 
Plants should not be selected from the edge of a field 
or some favored spot. From ten to a hundred plants 
especially noticeable for their desirable characteristics are 
selected from the various grain fields or plots, and the 
most desirable heads taken from each. These heads are 
shelled separately, placed in bottles or envelopes, num- 
bered, and held until time for planting. The best progeny 
of a single seed from the previous year is thus retained. 



Ii6 GRAIN BREP:DING 

The same number of seeds from each of the different 
heads are selected for planting each individual row. The 
seeds are planted the same distance apart in the row and 
the same space is left between the individual rows. 




Fig. 63. ^ Crossing small grains. 

This system of planting admits of easy comparison of 
individual plants of the same variety or of different varie- 
ties by simply comparing the rows. 

The entire plot receives the same care and attention and 
is finally harvested, each row separately. 

The rows are threshed and the yields from the individual 
rows determined. A few of the high yielding rows of the 
best quality are retained for increase plots, and the remain- 
der cast out. The following year a comparative test for 
yield and desirable characteristics is made between the 
increase plots, and only those plots of grain that come up 
to the desired standard are retained for a field test. 

The object of the breeder is to isolate single individual 
plants that have in them the power of perpetuating their 



CROSSING METHOD 117 

special characteristics of yield, quality, and vigor far in 
excess of other plants growing under similar conditions. 

Crossing Method. — The crossing of plants consists in 
rernoving the stamens of the flower before they have fully 
matured, leaving the ovary to be fertilized by pollen taken 
from some other plant of the same species. Barley, wheat, 
and oats are " close fertilized " plants ; that is, the stamens 
and pistils are borne on the same flower, which are so closely 
inclosed in its coverings that practically no pollen from 
other plants can reach the ovary of the flower. Hence, 
the same variety will breed true unless a Cross is made by 
artificial means. 

To obtain new strains of grains by crossing them, it 
becomes necessary to remove the stamens of the flower 




Fig. 64. — Open flowers of wheat and oats, showing reproductive organs. 

before they are far enough advanced to shed their pollen, 
and a few days later to introduce pollen from another plant. 



ii8 



GRAIN BREEDING 



This requires care and skill, as it is easy to injure the flower 
sufficiently to destroy its fertilization. 

After the stamens are removed and the pollen from some 
other plant is introduced, the flower is again closed and 
covered with thin tissue paper to allow light to penetrate 
but to prevent the pollen of any other plant from entering. 



BS^^^F^ 


hi 




i 


h|^>H^T^-,'-'T;..4f;,.,l'''4S 


O 


___.;-•...,;, ■•,-^>rv ^_ 


^m 


' ''^^^^HUfeikk^' 




P -^ ■ -'M^'^^^^^^ 



Fig. 65. — Artificial fertilization. 

Usually all except a small number of the flowers on the 
spike are removed, for more satisfactory results can be 
obtained when only a few of the flowers are used. 

By this method of grain breeding, valuable new strains 
may be produced, but up to the present time it has not 
given as satisfactory results as the selection method. 
Crossing causes mixture of characters, many of which may 
be undesirable. Hence after crossing, it takes several 
years of straight selection to establish a desirable combina- 
tion of characters. 



DISSEMINATION OF GRAINS 119 

• Dissemination of Improved Grains. — After a grain is 
improved it is important to have the seed as widely dis- 
seminated as possible so as to test its value under varying 
conditions of soil and cKmate. 

The aim of the grower of pedigree seeds is to get the 
entire community in which he resides interested in growing 
these grains instead of the common varieties. When their 
merits are known pedigree grains soon displace the numer- 
ous common varieties. 

EXERCISES 

1. Why must the crossing of pollen in small grains be done 
by hand? 

2. How does this process differ from crossing in corn? 

3. Why do crossed varieties tend to break up into several 
varieties ? 

4. How does the grain breeder prevent this breaking up of 
strains ? 

5. Which are most likely to come true to type, crossed or 
selected varieties? Why? 

HOME PROJECT 

On the home farm carry on a plot for the improvement of 
some grain or other useful plant, following directions given in 
this chapter. 



CHAPTER X 

LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

Leguminous plants increase the fertility of the soil by 
adding nitrogen to it. If the roots of a legume are removed 
from the ground and closely examined, small swellings, or 
nodules, may be seen on them. In these nodules are bac- 
teria that have the power of taking nitrogen from the air 
and of supplying it to the nodule-bearing plants. When 
the roots and nodules finally decay, the nitrogen that has 
been taken from the air is available for other crops that 
follow a leguminous crop. The most common legumes are 
the clovers, alfalfa, peas, field beans, soy beans, cowpeas, 
and vetches. 

CLOVERS 

The clovers are the most important group of legumi- 
nous plants. They not only add nitrogen to the soil, but 
also furnish a large amount of humus. They are great 
weed destroyers and are widely known as cleaning crops. 

Common Red Clover. — The common red or June clover 
is the most generally grown of all clovers, and is of great 
importance to farmers Hving in the Northern States and 
Canada. It is said to be a biennial, the seed being sown 
one year and the crop maturing the following year. Under 
certain favorable conditions due either to the absence of 
severe freezing or to self-seeding the common red clover 



CLOVERS 



121 



may adopt a perennial character and produce crops for 
several consecutive years without reseeding. 

Sowing the Seed. — Common red clover is usually sown 
in the spring with oats, barley, or spring wheat as a nurse 
crop, and at the rate of 5 to 6 
quarts of clover seed per acre with 
one and a half bushels of grain. 
It should follow corn or some 
cultivated crop which has been 
grown on sod land. In places 
where it is difficult to get a catch 
of clover with a nurse crop, a 
cultivation for the killing of 
weeds from early spring to June 
15 is practiced and the clover 
seed then sown without a nurse 
crop. If weeds appear/ they are 
clipped back by running a mower 
over the field. The cutter bar 
of the mower should be run high, 
and the clippings if not too 
heavy should be left on the field 
for a mulch; if heavy, they should 
be raked off and burned. Under 

favorable conditions one cutting Fig. 66.— common red clover. 

of hay or a good pasture can be secured the first year. If 
too wet, the fields should not be pastured. Clover is usually 
sown in mixture with timothy. When thus sown, 4 quarts of 
clover seed and 3 quarts of timothy seed are used per acre. 
If sown as a mixture, two cuttings of clover can be secured 
the year following seeding, the first of which is suitable for 
hay and the second either for hay or seed. 




122 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS 



Cutting Stage. — Clover should be cut for hay when it is 
in full bloom, and some of the early blossoms are turning 
brown. It should not be cut for seed until nearly all the 
heads are turned brown. If the second cutting is to be 
used for seed, it is well to take the first cutting of hay when 
only a few plants have come fully into blossom. For seed, 
the second cutting is preferable, as all the plants come into 
blossom uniformly, and bees and other insects that aid in 
polKnation are more abundant at that time. 

Cutting and Curing the Hay. — Clover should be cut 
when free from dew and rain, and left in the swath for a day 
to wilt. It may then be stirred with the tedder and after 
a few hours drying, raked into windrows, and put into 
medium-sized cocks. Every effort should be made to cure 
the hay without losing the leaves, which cannot be done if 
the clover is allowed to dry too long in the hot sun. The 
use of hay caps greatly facilitates curing. The evaporation 




Fig. 67. — Curing clover. Note the size of the bunches. 



of moisture goes on rapidly while in the cock and if left 
for two or three days, the hay will usually be well cured. 
If all clover hay was carefully cured so that it would not 



CUTTING FOR SEED 123 

heat in the mow, much of the prejudice now prevalent 
against clover for horses would not exist. The high protein 




Fig. 68. — A huUer, used for separating the seed from clover. 

content of clover makes it a valuable hay for dairy cows, 
sheep, and young stock. 

Cutting for Seed. — As soon as the first blossoms turn 
brown, pick a dozen average heads, rub out in the hand, 
and count the seeds. The number of bushels of seed that 
can be secured per acre where the stand is fair, may be esti- 
mated by the average amount of seed found in a dozen or 
more heads. For each ten seeds found in each head, the field 
will yield one bushel per acre. For example, if the average 
is twenty seeds to each head, the yield will be two bushels 
per acre ; if forty, four bushels per acre. This estimate is 
only approximate, as other factors, such as thickness of 
stand and thoroughness of hulling, have to be considered. 
When clover is harvested for seed a buncher attachment is 
used on the mower to bunch the clover and carry it out of 
the way of the next round of the mower. 



124 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS 




CLOVER 125 

After the clover has been left for three or four days or 
until thoroughly dry, it can be hauled direct to the huller, or 
stored or stacked, and hulled later in the season. The high 
price usually paid for good clover seed makes it a profitable 
crop for farmers to grow. 

Clover produces seed best on clay land that has an 
abundance of lime in it. The seed should be run through a 
grader and screened before it is put on the market. 

Mammoth Clover. — The mammoth clover resembles the 
common red clover, but under the same soil and climatic 
conditions grows ranker and taller. It is from two to three 
weeks later in maturing and makes a coarser hay. For 
this reason it is preferred on sandy and worn-out soils. 
On account of its lateness in maturing only one cutting of 
hay per season can be secured. If grown for seed it should 
be clipped back in the spring, when five or six inches high, 
and the clippings left for mulch. There is no way known 
to distinguish medium red clover seed from mammoth 
clover seed. Mammoth clover can be distinguished from 
the common variety by the later maturing of the mammoth 
and the absence of the white spot on the leaf, which is 
characteristic of the common red clover. The harvesting 
for hay and seed is the same for mammoth clover as for the 
common red variety. 

Alsike Clover. — The alsike or Swedish clover is a peren- 
nial plant and is usually grown mixed with timothy or red- 
top, which aids in holding the stems erect. The alsike 
clover has a finer stem than the red clover and has a tend- 
ency to grow taller. It is later in maturing than the 
medium red and reaches the cutting stage about the same 
time that timothy and redtop do, which makes it an excel- 
lent combination with these grasses. 



126 LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

Alsike clover can be grown on land too low and wet for 
red clover. It can also be grown on high, well-drained 
lands or on any lands on which the red clover will grow. 
In harvesting for seed, it is clipped back in the spring to 
give it a uniform growth and blossoming period. The seed 
is much smaller than that of red clover. Much of it is used 
for dyeing purposes, and due to this constant demand, 
there is httle variation in the price of this seed. The weight 
per bushel is the same for all clover seed. Alsike clover is a 
popular clover, not only for hay but for mixed pasture. 
When sown for seed, it should not be mixed with the grasses 
but should be sown alone at the rate of five quarts of seed 
per acre. 

White Clover. — White clover is native to America and 
grows readily in all clover sections. The seed is of a yellow 
hue and smaller than the seed of alsike clover. White 
clover is perennial in nature and grows best on well-drained 
clay lands. When grown for hay, on account of its dwarf 
nature, it is always combined with the grasses so as to 
faciUtate handHng. The white clover seed is most used 
for pasture and lawn seed mixtures. When grown for 
seed, special devices for handhng and hauhng are necessary. 
Both alsike and white clover produce honey of the finest 
color and flavor. Beekeepers are most successful in dis- 
tricts where white and alsike clovers are grown abundantly. 

VETCHES 

The common, or smooth, vetch and the hairy vetch are 
the only kinds of vetches that are generally grown in the 
United States. Each of these kinds has both spring and 
fall strains. Vetches are used extensively in the South as 



VETCHES 



127 



cover crops and soil improvers, and are becoming increas- 
ingly popular in the North. 

Sowing the Seed. — In the Northern States the common 
vetch should be sown in early spring, alone or with oats or 
other spring grain as a nurse crop, using about one and a 
half bushels of seed per acre when sown alone, or from 
a half to one bushel of seed when sown with a nurse crop. 




Fig. 70. —A field of vetch ready to be plowed under for the benefit of the soil. 



The vetch seed can be mixed with the grain seeding and 
thus can be sown with a broadcast seeder or a grain drill, 
or it can be sown separately. If the vetch seed is sown 
alone, the seeder or drill can be adjusted so as to sow the 
proper amount. 

In most sections of the United States the hairy vetch is 
sown in the late summer or early fall with rye as a nurse 
crop. The rye prevents sandy land from drifting and 



128 LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

affords protection for the tiny vetch plants. This com- 
bination crop furnishes excellent fall and winter pasture, 
and can be grazed down late in the spring without injury to 
the crop. After the stock is taken from the fields, the rye 
and vetch plants come on rapidly. The rye stems shooting 
up above the vetch plants, act as a support for them, thus 
keeping the vetch from trailing on the ground. The crop 
is harvested for hay much more readily than when grown 
alone. The hay cures much more easily and is of superior 
quality. 

Uses. — Vetches can be grown for hay, for seed, as a 
pasture or soiling crop, as a cover crop in orchards, and as a 
soil improver. The vetches do not cure so easily as do the 
clovers and often have to be left in the cock for several days. 
It is good practice to use caps for the proper curing of the 
hay. When used as a soil improver, the winter vetch and 
rye are turned under in the spring after several inches of 
growth have been obtained, in time to use the ground for 
potatoes or corn. 

Seed Production. — Most of the seed used for growing 
vetch in this country is imported from Europe. Since it 
does not seem to yield well in America, it has not as yet 
been produced here in large quantities. There are some 
localities near the Pacific Coast and in other parts of the 
United States, where considerable progress has been made 
in vetch seed production. 

The seed is round and of a dark purple color, somewhat 
resembhng a small pea. It also resembles the seed of the 
pernicious wheat cockle. The fields in which vetch is 
grown should be followed by a cultivated crop for at least 
two seasons before sowing ^mall grains, thus preventing 
the mixture of small grains and vetch. 



PEAS 129 

PEAS 

Classification. — Peas are divided into field and garden 
groups. The garden varieties are used extensively as can- 
ning peas and are sometimes classified under that name. 




Fig. 71. — A field of peas in blossom. 

Each group has numerous varieties characterized by color, 
shape, growth of vines, or time of maturity. Among the 
field varieties may be mentioned the Scotch, Green, Yellow, 
Marrowfat, Early Puritan, and Prussian Blue. Chief 
among the canning varieties are the Alaska, Horsford, 
Admiral, and Advancer, each with its peculiar characters of 
identification. 

Habits of Growth. — The pea puts forth but a single 
plant, but this plant divides above the ground and often 
several secondary branches may be found on a single stalk. 
The plants assume the nature of vines, which during the 
ripening period are recumbent and often lie prostrate upon 
the ground, making them somewhat difficult to harvest. 

Location of the Seed Bed. — Peas do best on high, well- 
drained land that is well suppUed with lime and organic 

M, AND H. PLANT PROD. — Q 



T30 



LEGUMIXOUS CROPS 



'm 


*H 








'SKn 


#- 


-«.»^ 


*"*?*^^^y| 


pklif 


4« 


ll^P^ 


m 


M- 


•* ' ^ ''^'^ 


^^m: 


■'m 




^ jImj 


^^^^i^'' 






-«!" 



Fig. 72. — Mower harvesting peas, with buncher attachment at right. 

matter. Best results are secured on the medium and heavy 
clay loam soils that do not heat to any great depth and are 
sufficiently rolling so that the surface water runs off rapidly. 
Peas do not do well on poor sandy soils or on lands that are 
low in fertility. On bottom lands and on rich prairie soils 
the vines grow so luxuriantly that they fail to fruit properly, 
thus producing low yields. 

Sowing the Seed. — All seed should be tested previous 
to sowing and only seed of strong vitality should be used. 
Peas can be sown with the seeder or the drill and should be 
put in as soon as the ground works well in early spring. The 
drill is to be preferred for seeding as the grower is enabled to 
plant the peas at a uniform depth, thus covering all seed 
and encouraging uniform sprouting. Peas should be sown 
at the rate of from two to three and a half bushels per acre, 
and covered at a depth of two to five inches, depending 
upon the nature of the soil. On heavy clays that are 



HARVESTING AND THRESHING 



131 



likely to bake, the peas should be put in at the lesser depth. 

Harvesting and Threshing. — Special preparation should 
be given the land by plowing deeply in the fall and disking 
early in the spring. The growing of peas is greatly facili- 
tated by rolling and dragging the ground before and after 
seeding in medium and light clay loams. This also pre- 
pares the land for harvesting. Peas are cut with a mower 
provided with buncher attachment or a pea harvester, and 
are left on the ground to cure. 

Canning peas are harvested in the green state, by pulling 
up the plants, picking the pods from the vines and sacking 
them by hand, or by using a mower or a harvester for cutting 
the peas and leaving them on the field in convenient shape 
for handling. The pea vines are then taken to the factory 
and run through a machine known as a viner, which shells 
the peas, separates them from the vines, and runs them 
into the factory where they are graded and canned. 

Another practice followed by canners is to have the 
grower deliver the peas ready shelled, for which they pay a 
certain price per pound. The canning of peas is a large and 
growing industry in the Northern States. The vines are 
used for silage or dried for pea straw and are greatly relished 
by farm animals. 

Field peas when cut after ripening are left on the ground 
in bunches to cure before hauling in. After being fully 
cured they are hauled from the field and stacked or stored 
in barns to await the time of threshing. 

Peas may be threshed with a special pea thresher or with 
the ordinary grain threshing machine. When the grain 
thresher is used the regular concaves of the machine are 
taken out and blank concaves put in their place to prevent 
the splitting of the peas. 



132 LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

Uses. — Canning or garden peas are used exclusively for 
human diet, while the field peas are used for both human 
food and for farm animals. The field peas sold on the 
market for human food are made up into various kinds of 
soups, while those used for animal food are usually mixed 
with oats, barley, wheat, or corn, and ground into meal. 

Rotation. — Peas fit well into a rotation as a crop to be 
sown on sod land once in three or four years. The practice 
of growing peas for several successive years on the same 
land invites disease and multiplication of insect enemies, 
and is strongly condemned. 

SOY BEANS 

The soy bean is a native of southeastern Asia where it 
grows wild and forms an essential part of the food for the 




Fig- 73- — A field of soy beans. Note the size of the leaves. 

inhabitants. It was introduced early into Japan and is 
used there and in China principally as human food. Soy 
beans were introduced into the Southern States by the 
United States Department of Agriculture. Until recently 



SOY BEANS 



133 



no extended effort has been made to grow soy beans in 
the North. They are classified as early, medium, and 
late, and each division has many varieties, based on 
color. 

Habits of Growth. — In seed and general appearance the 
soy bean resembles the ordinary navy bean, especially in 
the early stages of 
growth. The com- 
mon varieties are 
erect, bushy, and 
well-branched, rang- 
ing from eighteen 
inches to four feet in 
height. A covering 
of fine hair is notice- 
able over all parts 
of the plant. The 
leaves of the soy bean 
are composed of three 

large leaflets, borne Fig. 74. -Early soy beans. 

on long leafstalks. The small flowers grow in clusters in 
the axils of the leaves. The short, hairy pods contain two 
or three round or slightly flattened seeds, varying in size 
from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in diameter. The 
plant has a short, strong taproot with a rather scanty 
root system. The soy bean is especially adapted to warm 
climates, but is more resistant to frost than corn, cowpeas, 
or field beans. The length of season required for matur- 
ing varies greatly with different varieties, ranging from 
120 to 160 days. In the Northern States great care should 
be taken to get northern-grown seed of a variety that will 
mature in the grower's locahty. 




134 LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

GROWING PERIOD AND YIELD PER ACRE OF SOY BEANS 
FROM TESTS MADE AT THE WISCONSIN STATION 



Growing ! Yield per Weight per 



Name of Variety Period rs Acre in 

Days Bushels 



Ito San 136 33-7 

Early Brown 136 , 16.5 

Medium Early Black 133 j 14.3 

Medium Early Green 155 22.3 

Medium Early Yellow 136 1 39 

Michigan Green 162 26.7 

Wisconsin Black 122 23 

Early Black 133 i7-3 



Measured 
Bushel 



56 

54-5 

56 

54 

58 

54.5 

52 



Uses. — The soy bean is not used as a human food in the 
United States, its chief uses being that of a hay plant, a soil 
renovator, a mixed silage crop, and a dry feed for hogs, 
sheep, and cattle. The protein content of this plant is so 
high when compared with that of other feeds that it com- 
mends itself readily to dairymen and stockmen who desire 
protein foods to use in balancing rations for farm animals. 

The analyses of the seeds of dry soy beans show the 
following composition : 

Per Cent 

Protein 36.25 

Nitrogen-free Extract 25.97 

Fat 16.90 

Moisture io-53 

Ash 6.20 

Crude Fiber 4-i5 

Total 100.00 

As a hay crop it ranks next to alfalfa, and it makes excel- 
lent silage when mixed, at the time of filling the silo, with 
two thirds its weight of corn. If used exclusively for silage, 
it gives off a disagreeable odor that permeates the whole 
stable, and is therefore objectionable to dairymen for feed- 



SOY BEANS AS FOOD 



135 



ing purposes. As the soy bean is an annual, a hay crop, 
superior to clover in feeding value, may be obtained in a 
single season. When drought occurs early in the spring 
and some other crop is ruined, soy beans may be planted as 
a catch crop, thus securing a good yield of hay or grain. 

Soy Beans as a Protein Food. — The following table 
shows the relative amount of digestible nutrients in soy 
beans and in other common concentrated feeds. They 
rank closely with cottonseed meal and linseed meal and 
contain more than twice as much crude protein as wheat 
bran. 



AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN SOY BEANS AND 
OTHER CONCENTRATES 



Fkeding Stuff 



Soy beans 

Cottonseed meal (choice) 
Linseed meal (old process) 

Wheat bran 

Oats 

Barley 

Dent corn 



Total Dry 
Matter in 
100 Pounds 



««.3 
92.6 
90.2 
88.1 
89.6 
89.2 
89.4 



Digestible Nutrients in 100 
Pounds 



Crude 
Protein 



29.1 
35.8 
30.2 
II.9 



8.4 
7.8 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



2i.i 
23.2 
32.0 
42.0 
49.2 
65.3 
66.8 



Fat 



14.6 
8.0 
6.9 
2.5 
4.3 
1.6 

4.3 



The results of feeding trials at several experiment stations 
show the value of soy beans for various classes of animals. 
Being rich in crude protein they should never be fed alone 
but used with feeds, Uke corn, oats, and barley, which are 
much lower in crude protein. 

Soy Beans for Hay. — The soy bean makes valuable hay 
when properly cured, and all farm animals eat it with great 



36 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS 



relish. The following table shows the nutrients in soy bean 
hay compared with other common roughage : 

AVERAGE DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN SOY BEAN HAY AND 
OTHER ROUGHAGE 



Feeding Stuff 



Soy bean hay . . , 
Alfalfa hay . . . , 
Red clover hay . , 
Oat hay .... 
Timothy hay . . . 
Corn fodder with ears 



Total Dry 
Matter in 
loo Pounds 



88.2 
91.9 

84.7 
86.0 
86.8 
57.8 



Digestible Nutrients in 100 
Pounds 



Crude 
Protein 



10.6 

10.5 

7-1 

4-7 
2.8 



Carbo- 
hydrates 



40.9 
40-5 
37.8 
36.7 
42.4 
34-6 



Fat 



1.2 
0.9 

1.8 
1-7 
1-3 
1.2 



Planting. — Soy beans thrive best on high, loamy soils 
but will grow on any soil that will produce potatoes or corn. 
The seed bed should be made fine and mellow. To mature 
the crop in northern sections, the soy beans should be 
planted in rows with a hand or grain drill after the time for 
planting corn. Approximately a third of a bushel of seed 
per acre is required when planted in drills. The rows 
should be about thirty inches apart and the beans should 
be dropped about two inches apart in the row. 

When a heavy yield of dry beans or hay is desired, the 
early maturing varieties should be used. For silage pur- 
poses, the medium or late varieties are preferred. In 
growing soy beans for hay they should be sown broadcast 
or in narrow drills, using a bushel of seed per acre. 

Cultivation. — Soy beans should be cultivated between 
the rows the same as corn and approximately at the same 
time. Usually three cultivations are sufficient, as the 



HARVESTING 137 

broad leaves of the plants spread over the ground to such an 
extent that weeds are kept down effectually. They should 
not be cultivated while the leaves are wet with dew or rain, 
since this practice is hkely to spread the spores of fungus 
diseases, and thus injure the crop. Shallow cultivation is 
highly recommended. 

Harvesting. — For soiHng purposes or for hay the plants 
should be cut with a mower when in blossom, but for seed 




Fig' 75' — A soy bean harvester. 



or dry beans they should be cut after the pods have turned 
brown. Soy beans can be harvested for seed with a com- 
mon mower with windrow attachment or a bean harvester. 
Where only a small area is grown, they can be pulled by 



13S LEGUMINOUS CROPS 

hand or cut with a scythe or a corn knife. After cutting 
it is well to let the beans lie in shocks or in windrows for 
several days before threshing. 

Threshing and Storing. — If the beans are thoroughly 
dry they can be threshed nicely with a grain thresher. 
Blank concaves should be used to prevent splitting of the 
beans. The cylinder should be run at less speed than 
when threshing grain. The beans should be stored in 
barrels or shallow bins, or spread out on a floor where from 
time to time they can be shoveled over until they are 
thoroughly dry and hard. Later they may be safely stored 
more compactly. When stored immediately after thresh- 
ing, the beans are apt to heat and mold. As soy beans lose 
their germinating power rather quickly, even when properly 
stored, they should always be carefully tested for germina- 
tion before planting. 

The dry beans will keep well for several years when not 
exposed to the elements. They can be fed whole to pigs 
and sheep, but for general use it is preferable to crack or 
grind them. 

Tests have shown that it is often necessary to mix the 
beans with corn or peas to grind them into meal, as the 
beans are too soft to granulate well if ground alone. Too 
large quantities should not be ground at a time, as the high 
oil content will cause the meal to heat and turn rancid in 
storage, making it unfit for feed. 

Soil Inoculation. — When soy beans are planted on land 
that has never before grown soy beans, it is well to inoculate 
with the bacteria that produce the nodules on the roots of 
the plants. This can be done by securing soil from a field 
upon which soy beans have been grown for several years, 
and scattering it at the rate of about 600 pounds to the 



EXERCISES 



139 



acre upon the field to be planted with soy beans. A good 
inoculation can be obtained by merely mixing equal quan- 
tities of bacteria-laden 
earth and soy beans and 
planting the mixture. 
The roots of the plants 
on the land thus treated 
will be found to have 
the nodules attached to 
them in abundance, and 
the absence of the nod- 
ules will be noticed in 
plants from fields not 
inoculated. Tests seem 
to show that there are 
a limited number of the 
nitrogen-fixing bacteria 
for soy beans in all soils. 
but it is best to inocu- 
late to secure at once 

their beneficial action. Fig. 76. Nodules on the roots of soy beans. 




EXERCISES 



1. What are the principal characteristics of the legumes? 

2. How does the protein content of the legumes compare 
with that of cereal grains? 

3. How do legumes benefit the soil? 

4. Under what conditions will clover "wear out" the land? 

5. What are the principal legumes grown in the Northern 
States? In the South? 

6. Can a piece of land be inoculated for alfalfa by sowing 
clover on it? 



I40 



LEGUMINOUS CROPS 



7. By the use of the tables in this chapter calculate the 
amount of protein in a ton of alfalfa, clover, timothy hay, and 
corn fodder. 

8. What is the average yield of each of the above crops in 
your locality? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Grow small plots of medium red, mammoth, crimson, and 
alsike clovers for comparison and study. 

2. Sow common vetch in the spring with and without oats 
for hay, and cut when the vetch is in full bloom. 

3. Sow hairy vetch in the fall with and without rye as a 
nurse crop, and note the development for hay the following 
summer. 

4. Pasture vetch and rye in the fall and spring and then let 
grow for hay. 

5. Turn vetch and rye under for green manure and grow 
corn, potatoes, or root crops, noting results. 

6. Grow a plot each of Alaska, Admiral, Horsford, and 
Advancer peas for comparison and study. 

7. Grow plots of Scotch, Marrowfat, Green, and Yellow field 
peas for comparison and study. 

8. Put up some threshed and sheaf samples of legumes for 
exhibition purposes. 



CHAPTER XI 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa belongs to the legume family. Like other mem- 
bers of the family it is able to use the free nitrogen of the 
air to build up plant tissue, through the activity of certain 
bacteria that inhabit the nodules upon the roots. Alfalfa 
can truly be called the queen of forage plants. No other 
forage plant is more readily relished by farm animals or 
exercises a more beneficial effect upon the soil. There are 
numerous varieties of alfalfa, differing in their foliage, 
manner of growth, and ability to withstand the elements. 
The leading varieties are the Grimm, Cossack, Baltic, 
Turkestan, Common Persian, and Sand Lucerne. 

Habits of Growth. — Alfalfa is an erect plant and grows 
to the average height of two to three feet. It is character- 
ized by smooth stems and leaves and the numerous shoots 
coming forth from a single plant. The alfalfa plant has 
a large taproot and many smaller branch roots or several 
distinct roots running down from a single crown. In many 
instances the roots penetrate the ground to a depth of 
twenty-five feet. A veritable forest of roots hes under 
each well-estabHshed alfalfa field. Alfalfa through this 
large root growth exerts a beneficial effect upon the soil 
on which it grows ; and through its power to feed on the 
soil elements and secure moisture at great depth below the 
surface, it is able to stand severe droughts and maintain 

141 



142 



ALFALFA 



itself upon the soil for many years without the necessity 
of reseeding. 

Through this power of the plant to send down such a 
vast number of roots the soil even though previously com- 
pact becomes porous and friable, so that in later years when 




Fig. 77. — Alfalfa should not be grown in a poorly drained field. 



plowed and fitted for other crops its physical condition is 
much improved. This great mass of root growth which 
decays when the field is plowed up adds materially to the 
humus content and the richness of the soil, and thus enables 
the farmer to have a field high in fertility in which he can 
grow large crops of corn or other grains. 

Location and Preparation of the Seed Bed. — The alfalfa 
field should be located on high, well-drained land. In 
humid regions it is useless to sow alfalfa seed on river or 
creek bottoms that overflow their banks annually, or to 
sow it on marsh lands where the water level is only two or 
three feet below the surface. It is also well not to select a 



PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED 



143 



tield so level that the surface water cannot run off readily 
after showers and heavy rains. On level lands in winter 
when melting snow or rain fills the small depressions, ice 
may form over these shallow basins and smother the plants. 
Alfalfa can be grown on nearly all soils, but does best on 
gravelly or limestone soils where the surface soil is a clay 
loam. It is extremely hard to get a catch of alfalfa on 
sandy soils unless the land is heavily manured and given 
special treatment. Heavy clay lands will grow alfalfa to 
advantage if the ground is plowed deep and thoroughly 
pulverized. A soil that has grown grain and hay crops 
through a series of years and has been thoroughly subdued 
is best suited for alfalfa growing. Fall plowing is to be pre- 
ferred, as a beneficial influence is exerted on the soil by the 
winter freezing. If spring plowing is resorted to, the ground 
should be rolled and dragged before and after seeding. 



Miy 








IB^j^iinpi 



Fig. 78. — Preparing the seed bed for alfalfa. 



Fall-plowed land should be disked in early spring and imme- 
diately dragged with a fine-tooth harrow. It should then 
be kept mellow with the harrow until the time for seeding. 



144 



ALFALFA 



Testing the Seed. — Alfalfa seed should be tested before 
planting, as the test will reveal to the farmer several facts 
which will guide him in his work. Before purchasing alfalfa 
seed in large quantities, farmers should write to their seeds- 
men requesting samples of seed. A simple plate tester is 
used in making the germinating test. This tester is made 
by using two tin pie plates, one slightly smaller than the 




Fig. 79. — Pie-plate testers for alfalfa and grass seeds. 

other. Earthen plates can be used, but they are not so 
convenient and are liable to be broken. Cotton or flannel 
pads are cut out the same size as the inside of the under 
plate. The pads are soaked in water and then squeezed 
to remove the surplus water. One pad is put at the bottom 
of the larger plate and a hundred alfalfa seeds are placed 
upon it. The other pad is placed upon the seeds and the 
smaller plate inverted and used as a cover to prevent 



TESTING THE SEED 145 

evaporation of moisture. Common blotting paper can be 
used for pads if desired. The tester should then be left 
in some convenient place at ordinary room temperature 
(70° F.) or slightly above. At the expiration of twenty- 
four hours the tester is examined, and if the pads are some- 
what dry, they should be moistened. The lower pad should 
be raised when these examinations are made so as to admit 
air underneath the pad, which facilitates the process of 
germination. Seeds should show signs of germination 
after being in the tester for seventy-two hours. All good 
seeds under favorable conditions will have sprouted after 
being in the tester five days. Those not sprouted at this 
time may be rejected as worthless, but should be kept at 
least twenty-four hours beyond the usual time so as to leave 
no doubt as to the reliability of the results. As the seeds 
sprout they should be taken from the tester from day to day 
and a record made of the test on a slip of paper that may be 
kept on top of the pads. In making these tests the vigor 
shown in the sprouting of the seeds should be taken into 
consideration as well as the number of seeds sprouted. A 
seed that is tardy in germinating and puts forth a weak 
sprout is not desirable. Occasionally hard seeds are found 
in alfalfa that seem impervious to moisture and consequently 
will not germinate in the allotted time, but will germinate, 
however, in the ground after frost has acted upon them, or 
if they have been scratched by passing through a seeder. 
It is customary for seed laboratories to count a third of 
all hard seeds found in a test as germinable. 

Sowing without a Nurse Crop. — In the early spring the 
disk should be run over the land and followed with a fine- 
tooth harrow at weekly intervals until about June i, so 
that the weeds will sprout and be killed. This treatment 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. lO 



146 ALFALFA 

will conserve moisture and warm the soil. The alfalfa seed 
is then sown without any nurse crop, using twenty pounds 
of seed per acre. If the land is known to be weedy, it is 
best to continue the cultivation through June and a portion 
of July and then sow the seed. If conditions are favorable 
and seed is sown June i, one cutting of alfalfa hay may be 
secured the same season. Alfalfa can be cut with safety 
any time previous to the first appearance of frost. In the 
Northern States the last cutting of alfalfa should be made 
not later than September 10, regardless of the cutting 
stage. Sufficient growth will then be secured before 
freezing weather to protect the plant through the winter. 
The practice of sowing alfalfa with a nurse crop is being 
displaced by the method of sowing the seed alone, and 
much better results are obtained if the land is free from 
weeds. The tiny alfalfa plants should have a chance to 
take full possession of the ground, which they cannot do 
to advantage if crowded by a nurse crop. While experi- 
ments show that good catches of alfalfa are occasionally 
secured by the use of a light nurse crop, yet much better 
catches and a more lasting seeding can be secured by sowing 
the alfalfa seed alone. The seed can be sov/n either with a 
hand seeder or a grain drill with a grass seeder attachment. 
When sown with a hand seeder, or when broadcasted with a 
seeder attachment, a slant-tooth harrow should be used 
to cover the seed slightly. 

On clay soils the seed should be sown less than an inch 
deep, or the tiny plants will not be able to push their 
way to the surface. Land plowed in the spring for alfalfa 
should be dragged as soon as plowed to prevent drying out 
and the planker or roller should be run over the land before 
and after seeding, and finished by using a fine-tooth harrow 



METHODS OF SEEDING 



h: 



so as to leave the surface loose enough to prevent rapid 
evaporation. The alfalfa crop is benefited by a light coat- 
ing of well-rotted manure, or manure that is free from coarse 
litter. It should 
be put on during a 
dry spell or after 
the ground is frozen 
in the fall so as 
not to injure the 
plants when driv- 
ing over them. 

Sowing with a 
Nurse Crop. — If 
one wishes to grow 
a grain crop the 
same season that 
alfalfa is seeded, 
much care should 
be taken in the 
preparation of the 
seed bed. If the 
land has previously 
grown alfalfa, it 
will be much easier 
to get a good stand 
than if it is the first 
seeding. Experi- 
ments show that 
on rich soil, barley 
is one of the best 
nurse crops, although oats or spring wheat may be used. 
The nurse crop should be sown thin, using only about half 




Fig. 80. — A six-year-old alfalfa plant. 



148 



ALFALFA 



as much seed as when the cereal crop is sown alone. When 
alfalfa is sown with a nurse crop, the time of seeding should 
be governed by the best time for the cereal. The seeding 
can be done with one operation provided a drill or seeder 
is used with a grass seeder attachment. It is preferable 
to let the alfalfa seed scatter broad- 
cast and to run a slant-tooth harrow 
over the ground once after seeding. 
Some good seedings have been ob- 
tained when the seed was run through 
the drill, but the tendency is to cover 
too deeply when this practice is fol- 
lowed. If the season is extremely 
dry, it is best to cut the nurse crop 
early for hay and thereby give the 
alfalfa a better opportunity to grow. 
If the season is not too dry, the cereal 
crop can be left to ripen, and can 
be harvested in the usual manner. 
Many good stands of alfalfa have 
been secured in this way. 

Other Methods of Seeding. — If 
the land is mellow and conditions are 
favorable for the growth of alfalfa, a 
stand can be obtained by sowing the 
seed early in the spring on land that 
is growing fall rye. When the land is 
extremely weedy, it is advisable to summer fallow and sow 
alfalfa the first week in August. The moisture conserved 
makes the alfalfa seed sprout rapidly, and the plants reach 
sufficient height for winter protection. Often where early 
peas or potatoes have been grown, the land can be put into 




Fig. 8i. 



Alfalfa plant in 
blossom. 



CUTTING AND CURING ALFALFA 149 

condition and alfalfa seed sown after the crop of potatoes 
or peas has been harvested. If weedy, the land should be 
plowed after the crop is removed ; and to kill weeds, a fine- 
tooth harrow should be run over it at intervals through the 
latter part of the summer and early fall. Alfalfa can then 
be sown without a nurse crop in the early spring with 
probability of a good catch. Alfalfa can be sown success- 
fully on rich soils, following early crops such as peas, early 
potatoes, and early grain crops. 

Cutting and Curing Alfalfa. — No crop can be secured 
the same season that alfalfa seed is sown, except under the 




Fig. 82. — Cutting a field of alfalfa. 

most favorable conditions. The year following seeding, 
three good crops may be expected. The first crop in 
northern latitudes will be ready for cutting early in June, a 
trying time for curing hay. It should be cut when the 
alfalfa is in advanced bud and a few plants are in blossom, 
on a day that promises fair weather. Occasionally the 
alfalfa will come into bud and hesitate to blossom ; sprouts 
will then immediately start at the base. It should be cut 



150 ALFALFA 

when those conditions prevail even though no blossoms 
appear. 

When alfalfa is cut in the morning, if the weather is 
favorable the hay can be raked and put into small cocks 
in the afternoon of the same day. The cocks should 
not be left standing in the field more than two or three 
days during wet weather without moving, or the alfalfa 
plants underneath the cocks will be partially or completely 
smothered. By running a pitchfork into a cock of alfalfa 
near the bottom one can easily move the pile. If alfalfa 
is exceedingly green when cocked, or rainy weather sets in, 
it will heat unless the cocks are opened every day or two. 
In favorable weather no more difficulty will be experienced 




ixinne View Co. 
Fig. 83. — Hogs fattened on alfalfa. 



in curing alfalfa than in curing heavy growths of clover. 
Like clover leaves, the alfalfa leaves drop off readily when 
dry. As the leaves are richest in nitrogen the aim of the 
farmer should be to cure the alfalfa with the least possible 



CURING UNDER CAPS 151 

handling. Half of the feeding value may be lost through 
weathering and improper handling. 

Curing under Caps. — A much better quality of hay 
will be secured if the crop is cured- under hay caps than in 



m^. ■■■■ ■■^. ^ ^j,^ 








^^B^H^jiliSjiiiklz^' 



Fig. 84. — Alfalfa under hay caps. 

open cocks or windrows, as dew and sunshine hurt alfalfa 
hay. Caps can be made from light cotton duck. The 
edges of the cloth should be hemmed to prevent raveling 
and eyelets should be made in the corners, in which strings 
may be tied and attached to weights. Heavy wires eighteen 
inches long and looped at one end to receive the strings 
attached to the caps make a convenient arrangement to 
hold the caps in place. These wire pegs can be either run 
into the ground or bent in the form of hooks and pushed 
into the sides of the cocks. 

Much of the feeding value is lost through stacking, as 
the hay is porous and rain penetrates the stacks two or 
three feet. However, little of the alfalfa is lost when stored 
under cover. An outside mow with roof does fairly well, 
or a covering of marsh hay or a tarpaulin will prevent 
damage to the alfalfa in the stack. It is well to let the 



152 ALFALFA 

alfalfa sweat in the cock, otherwise it will heat and get 
musty in the barn or stack. 

Alfalfa as a Soiling and Pasture Crop. — No other 
soiling crop will give such good results throughout the sum- 
mer as alfalfa. Alfalfa is ready to cut for soiHng about 
June I, and can be cut continuously until September 5 
in the North and earher and later in the South. By be- 
ginning to cut early and arranging so that daily cuttings 
can be taken through the advanced cutting state, it is 
possible to have good succulent alfalfa throughout the sum- 
mer. In good growing weather a crop will mature suffi- 
ciently for soiHng purposes in twenty to thirty days. Alfalfa 
has not yet come into general use in the East as a pasture 
crop. The attempts so far made have proved disastrous 
to the crop. There is no doubt that it makes an excellent 
pasture, but stock rehsh the plant so much that they graze 
it too closely. Only a limited number of animals should 
be turned in, so that the fields may be pastured and cut 
for hay also. As a hog pasture, no plant can excel alfalfa. 
Ten to twelve medium sized hogs can be pastured on an 
acre. The surplus alfalfa in the hog pasture when mature 
should be cut and made into hay. Ruminants, such as 
cattle and sheep, often bloat when allowed to pasture on 
luxuriant growths of moist alfalfa, but there is no such 
danger after the alfalfa is in blossom and during dry 
weather. 

Seed Production. — Very Httle seed has as yet been pro- 
duced in the humid regions and we are dependent upon the 
arid and semiarid districts of the United States for our 
alfalfa seed production. The larger portion of the seed is 
grown under methods of irrigation where six or eight hay 
crops are produced annually. As a crop of seed is secured 



SEED PRODUCTION 



153 




154 ALFALFA 

at the expense of two cuttings of hay, it will not pay the 
grower in the East to produce seed until larger yields per 
acre can be secured. 

Alfalfa Acreage. — The great amount of valuable forage 
taken from a limited acreage has led many to think that a 
large portion of the farm should be sown in alfalfa regardless 
of condition. A word of caution to farmers who have 
never grown alfalfa is necessary. They should try only a 
limited acreage, not more than one or two acres to begin 
with, for the purpose of studying the plant and the soil 
conditions on the farm. The longer alfalfa is grown and 
fed upon the farm the more ideal the conditions for suc- 
cessful growth become, and the day is rapidly approaching 
when alfalfa will be grown as generally in the humid regions 
as common red clover now is. 

Soil Inoculation. — Alfalfa is able to use the nitrogen 
of the air, only when the nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present. 
Where the soil contains these organisms in limited numbers 
the plants not acted upon by the bacteria soon wither and 
die. In some sections the ground is sufficiently supplied with 
the alfalfa bacteria, but there are locahties where they are 
present in so limited numbers that it seems impossible to 
get a catch of alfalfa that will survive the first winter. 
Sweet clover, an ordinary roadside weed, is one of the dis- 
tributors of alfalfa bacteria. When a farmer is in doubt 
as to whether his land contains the proper bacteria he can 
successfully inoculate his fields by scattering on them soil 
from an old alfalfa field or soil on which sweet clover has 
grown. For best results one ton of earth per acre should 
be scattered immediately preceding the sowing of the alfalfa 
seed. Farmers who have no alfalfa or sweet clover near at 
hand from which to get infected soil in large amounts, 



SOIL INOCULATION 



^55 



should secure a sack of a hundred pounds of alfalfa soil 
from some alfalfa grower or from the state experiment 
station. One hundred pounds of this soil is sufficient 
to scatter on about eight or ten square rods of the field to 
be sown in alfalfa. The year following the seeding, soil 
can be taken from the por- 



tion of the field on which ^^ Hi ^ W ^'^'"i M^ 
the infected soil was scat- 
tered and used for the in- 
oculation of larger areas. 
Alfalfa responds readily to 
these methods of inocula- 
tion, and nearly all plants 
will have the proper nodules 
on the roots the first season 
of growth. If the infected 
soil is mixed with the alfalfa 
seed and sown by hand, a 
small amount of soil will 
partially inoculate a con- 
siderable area. 

To prepare soil for grow- 
ing alfalfa a mixture of one 
fourth alfalfa and three 
fourths clover or grass seed 
may be used in seeding down 
a portion of the farm. The 
mixed hay will be improved by the alfalfa in it, and the 
alfalfa plants will become producers and distributors of the 
bacteria needed for future crops of this legume. After 
alfalfa has been grown and fed, and the manure made 
from the alfalfa scattered over the farm, all the soil on the 




Fig. 86. 



Clusters of nodules on aLaifa 
roots. 



156 



ALFALFA 



farm soon becomes filled with the proper germs. Where 
exceedingly heavy applications of barnyard manure are 
placed upon small areas, the alfalfa does well, and in the 
second year of its growth has the proper nodules even 
without artificial inoculation. The United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, some of the colleges of agriculture. 




Fig. 87. 



Scattering bacteria-laden soil for inoculation purposes previous to sowing 
alfalfa seed. 



and several commercial firms are now preparing artificial 
cultures which readily take the place of soil for inoculat- 
ing purposes. 

Rotation. — No definite rotation of crops is practiced 
by farmers in general. When a field of alfalfa is well 
established the desire is to continue cutting as long as the 
field will furnish good crops. When alfalfa can be grown 
successfully on all portions of a farm a five-year rotation 
can be maintained, in which alfalfa can be grown for three 
years and grain crops for the other two years. This 
practice will result in better yields of grain crops. 

Feeding Value of Alfalfa. — The feeding value of alfalfa 



FEEDING VALUE OF ALFALFA 



157 



in comparison with that of other forage crops is shown in 
Table A. The value of alfalfa hay in comparison with that 
of common grain feeds is shown in Table B. 

TABLE A. FEEDING VALUE OF CURED HAY 
(Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds) 



Cured Hay 



Alfalfa hay . . . 
Red clover . . . 
Alsike clover . . 
Orchard grass . . 
Mixed grasses . . 
Timothy .... 
Redtop .... 
Barley hay . . . 
Kentucky blue grass 
Oat hay .... 
Fodder corn . . . 
Corn stover . . . 



Pounds 
Protein 



II. 7 
7.1 
8.4 
4.9 
4.2 
2.8 

4.8 

5-7 
4-4 
4-7 
2.5 
1-4 



Pounds 
Carbohydrates 



40.9 
37.8 
39-7 
42.4 
42.0 
42.4 
46.9 
43-6 
40.2 
36.7 
34-6 

31-2 



Pounds 
Fat 



i.o 
1.8 



TABLE B. COMPARISON OF GRAIN FEEDS WITH .\LFALFA 

HAY 

(Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds) 



Feeds 



Pounds 
Protein 



Pounds 
Carbohydrate s 



Pounds 
Fat 



.\lfalfahay . . . 
Wheat bran (spring) 
Kernel corn . . . 
Corn meal . . . 

Oats 

Barley .... 

Wheat 

Buckwheat . . . 



II. 7 

11.9 

7.8 

6.7 

lO.O 

8.4 



40.9 
42.0 
66.8 
64.3 
50-3 
65.3 
67.5 
48.2 



T.O 

2-5 

1.0 
4-3 
3-5 
1.6 

1-5 
3.8 



158 ALFALFA 

Correcting Acid Soils for Alfalfa. — The natural home for 
alfalfa is on limestone soils or other soils that are well sup- 
plied with lime. No matter how favorable other conditions 
may be, if the soil is sour, it will be necessary to neutralize 
the acidity before it will be possible to obtain good 
results. 

Acid land can occasionally be detected by plants such as 
sheep sorrel, horsetails, and mosses that thrive on it. 
It can always be determined by testing it with blue litmus 
paper in the following manner. Take some moist earth 
from a few inches beneath the surface of the ground and 
press it firmly over a strip of blue litmus paper. Do not 
handle the litmus paper when the hands are moist as the 
perspiration from them may cause the paper to show an 
acid reaction when no acid is present in the soil. After 
the paper has remained in the soil for ten or fifteen minutes, 
the litmus will change in color from a blue to a pink or red, 
if the soil is acid. This acidity must be corrected before 
alfalfa can be grown to advantage. 

Acidity can be corrected either through the application 
of pulverized limestone, dry marl, or slaked Hme. The 
best results seem to be obtained by the use of limestone or 
marl. No evil results follow their use as is occasionally 
the case with caustic Hme. Over an acre of ground there 
should be scattered two to three tons of pulverized raw 
limestone or one to two tons of marl. Heavy applications 
of barnyard manure seem to benefit most acid soil suffi- 
ciently to get a catch of alfalfa. After alfalfa has become 
well established on land high in fertihty it seems to thrive 
even on acid soils. The application of lime has a beneficial 
effect on leguminous plants other than merely correcting 
the acidity of the soil. 



ENEMIES AND DISEASES 159 

Enemies and Diseases. — Like most plants alfalfa has 
its enemies and diseases which are troublesome under 
certain conditions in some sections. Alfalfa dodder, a 
parasitic plant which twines itself around the alfalfa plant 
and lives upon its juices, often ruins fields of alfalfa. The 
dodder seed is nearly the same size and color as the alfalfa 
seed and is not readily noticed. When alfalfa seed comes 
from infested fields it is contaminated with this pest. If 
sown with the alfalfa seed, the dodder will not be noticed 
until discovered in the growing field. When considerable 
areas of the field are found to be infested it is best to plow 
the field and run to corn or grain crops for a series of two or 
three years before reseeding to alfalfa. Many of the states 
now have seed inspection laws and a penalty is attached 
to selling seed contaminated with mustard, dodder, buck- 
horn, and other obnoxious weed seeds. 

In seed-producing sections leaf spot is quite common, 
and often the crop is materially reduced or entirely ruined. 
When leaf spot, mildew, or rust makes its appearance it is 
best to cut the crop at once for hay. The succeeding crop 
may be entirely free from these diseases. 

Gophers and prairie dogs often injure fields of alfalfa 
by burrowing in the ground and eating the alfalfa roots. 
Trapping and poisoning the animals seem to be most ef- 
fective. Blister beetles, army worms, and grasshoppers are 
destructive at times. 

EXERCISES 

1. If a 20-acre field is seeded at the rate of 16 pounds of 
alfalfa seed per acre and the seed costs 20 cents per pound, what 
is the cost of the necessary seed? 

2. Bring to school for class use specimens of nodule-bearing 
roots of sweet clover, red clover, and alfalfa. 



i6o ALFALFA 



HOME PROJECTS 



1. Establish a plot of alfalfa containing four square rods in 
the following manner. Select well-drained soil suited to the 
alfalfa plant. When ready for seeding after the soil has been 
prepared according to directions given in this chapter, spread 
over this plot, distributing as evenly as possible, about fifty 
pounds of finely divided air-slaked lime and harrow it in thor- 
oughly. Just before seeding, inoculate the soil with about 
the same amount of alfalfa or sweet clover soil and harrow 
immediately. The plot is then ready for seeding in the regular 
way. 

2. Sow alfalfa seed with and without a nurse crop. 

3. Sow alfalfa seed after removing an early crop from the 
land. 

4. Sow alfalfa seed with and without soil inoculation. 

5. Mix a quart of alfalfa seed per acre with grass or clover 
seed to establish alfalfa plants as bacteria distributors. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE HAY GRASSES 

Most of the hay and pasture crops are either legumes or 
grasses. Clover and alfalfa are legumes although they 
are sometimes spoken of as grass crops. The chief hay 
plants that, in a strict botanical sense, belong to the grass 
family are timothy, Kentucky blue grass, brome grass, 
orchard grass, and redtop. 

TIMOTHY 

Of all the hay grasses grown under cultivation, timothy 
ranks first and brings the best prices on the market. Its 
clean leaves and stems and the readiness with which it 
cures without injury after cutting has made it a desirable 
hay for feeding horses. 

Varieties. — No distinct varieties of timothy are as yet 
found upon the market and it was not until quite recently 
that any attempt had been made to breed definite strains. 

Testing the Seeds. — All timothy seed should be tested 
for germination before sowing, and unless the germination 
runs 80 per cent or higher, the seed should be regarded 
with suspicion. Seeds that have retained the hulls are 
supposed to be superior to the hulled seeds as it is believed 
that they retain moisture and withstand adverse conditions 
better. Experimental data seem to show that it makes 
httle difference in the results whether the seed is naked or 
inclosed within the hull. 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — II 161 



l62 



THE HAY GRASSES 



Sowing the Seed. — Timothy should be grown in a four- 
year or five-year rotation, in which the plan is to get a hay 
crop in the third year and another in the fourth year. It 
is usually sown in connection with clover, using about 
four quarts of clover seed and three quarts of timothy seed 
per acre. This mixture is sown with barley, oats, or wheat 
as a nurse crop. If the seasons are 
favorable, the first year after seeding 
two cuttings of clover hay can be se- 
cured, and a crop of timothy for hay 
or seed can be obtained the next year. 
The third year a crop of hay can be 
harvested or the field can be pastured. 
If the field is left to timothy for two 
years, the fifth year the ground should 
be plowed and planted in corn, pota- 
toes, peas, or beans. The land should 
be heavily manured if run to timothy 
two years, as the timothy crop makes 
a heavy draft on soil fertility. It is 
much better practice to grow timothy 
in a four-year rotation in which only 
one crop of hay or seed is taken in the 
four-year period. The usual practice 
is to sow the seed in the spring, but it 
may be sown in the fall with wheat or rye. If sown quite 
early in the fall, it usually withstands the winters and the 
clover can be sown on the growing crop in early spring. 
A grass seeder attachment to a grain drill or a broadcast 
seeder is commonly used for grass seeding where the ground 
is in proper condition for the use of farm machinery. On 
newly cleared and rocky lands a hand or wheelbarrow seeder 




Fig. 88. — A timothy plant 
at the cutting stage. 



CUTTING AND CURING THE HAY 



163 




Fig. 89. — A mowing machine. 

may be used to advantage. The legal weight of timothy 
seed in most states is 45 pounds per bushel. 

Cutting and Curing the Hay. — For best results timothy 
should be cut when it has passed its first bloom. If cut 
in the bloom, it is apt to be somewhat dusty. Timothy is 
easy to cure and should be tedded the afternoon of the day 







1 




^'^^ 


agj^jBH^Wr^SPPi^^^^'^^^^.'-^''' J 


^^^^-^^^^;/^^^ \ 




1 I ' ' 



Fig. 90. — A side-delivery rake. 



164 



THE HAY GRASSES 



when cut or the day after and raked into windrows and put 
into medium-sized cocks. If left in the cocks for two or 
three days, it goes through a sweat and will not heat or 




Fig. 91. — A modern hay loader. 



i£) Keystone View Co. 



mold when put into the mow. Where large acreages of 
timothy are grown for hay the hay loader may be used to 
advantage a day or two after cutting. A side-delivery 
rake is an excellent piece of farm machinery for raking up 
the hay in convenient form for the use of the hay loader. 
The hay may be stacked, but a much better practice is to 
store it away in large barns or sheds. 

Marketing the Hay. — The most convenient way to 
market the hay is to bale the hay direct from the mow and 
at a convenient time haul it to market. Timothy and wild 
hay are marketed loose when sold to local markets where 



PASTURING 165 

there are stables and lofts for storing it away. Timothy 
is occasionally baled direct from the field, but on account 
of its being only partially cured and not having gone through 
the sweat it is liable to heat and mold; so this method is 
not considered good practice. Where hay is sold from the 
farm the farmer is wise to sell his timothy and retain 
his clover, especially for feeding cows, sheep, and young 
stock. To keep up the fertility of the farm the farmer 
should plan to use more clover and less timothy. 

Pasturing. — Timothy is a rapid grower and the grass 
is relished by all farm animals especially in the spring and 
fall. If pastured lightly, it is good practice to run over the 
pasture in midsummer with the mower, taking ofif the sur- 
plus hay. When this practice is followed the fall pasture 
is very much improved. If a permanent pasture is desired, 
Kentucky blue grass, alsike clover, and redtop seed should 
be mixed in equal parts by weight with the timothy seed 




Fig. 92. — A timothy pasture after cutting off the hay. 

before sowing. When harvested for seed it can be readily 
cut with a grain harvester, placed in shocks, and threshed 
with a grain thresher. 



i66 



THE HAY GRASSES 



Habits of Growth. — The erectness of the plant is one 
of its strong characteristics and one of the reasons for the 
good quahty of its hay. It seldom lodges, and if carried 
down by a severe storm, it soon regains its erect position. 
The plant usually grows three to four feet in height, and in 
a fertile soil it may reach the height of five feet. The root 
growth is strong and vigorous and 
makes a firm sod, especially when 
mixed with blue grass. The sod 
rots readily and the root growth is 
thus converted into humus. Timothy 
exerts a heavy draft upon the soil 
without returning any fertility to 
the land except that portion retained 
in the root growth. 

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS 

Kentucky blue grass, or June grass, 
is the best pasture grass of the United 
States, and is used extensively over 
a large area of the country. Like 
all of our native grasses it is perennial 
in character. When a field is once 
seeded to blue grass a permanent 
pasture may be retained for many 
years without reseeding. 
Sowing the Seed. — Blue grass is usually sown with 
timothy or some other erect grass when the plan is to cut 
it for hay. If seeded alone, it usually bends over and hes 
so closely to the ground that it is hard to mow and to 
handle after being cut. When it is grown in combination 
with other grasses it is kept erect and the ripening is so 




Fig. 93- 



Kentucky blue 
grass. 



KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS 



167 




1 68 THE HAY GRASSES 

retarded that it can be secured at the proper cutting stage 
with the other grasses. It grows so close to the ground 
that it forms a thick mat after two or three years and 
gradually crowds out the other grasses. Blue grass grows 
so extensively in uncultivated fields and pastures and so 
fills the land with seed that when the fields are sown to 
clover and other grasses it often comes on voluntarily and 
is soon quite noticeable. 

Harvesting the Seed. — The larger portion of the Ken- 
tucky blue grass seed is grown in Kentucky. It is harvested 
as soon as the heads and stems turn yellow. The seed 
is stripped from the plants by special machinery for that 
purpose. These strippings are put in windrows and left 
to cure. The windrows should be stirred frequently while 
curing. If the heads become heated, the germinating 
power of the seed is injured. After the heads are thor- 
oughly cured they are run through special machinery which 
takes out the seed and cleans it for market. The germina- 
tion of Kentucky blue grass seed is low even when good 
care is taken in harvesting and curing it. A test of 60 per 
cent to 65 per cent is considered exceptionally good. The 
yield of well-cleaned seed weighing 24 pounds per bushel 
is approximately 100 pounds per acre. When left in the 
chaff the yield runs somewhat higher. 

Uses. — Blue grass is a great pasture and lawn grass 
and is grown for that purpose more than for hay. It will 
grow in the shade better than any of our grazing grasses 
and is consequently used much in open wood lot pastures. 
When used in combination with other grass seeds for pas- 
ture or hay about ten or twelve pounds of seed is sown per 
acre. When used alone for lawn or golf grounds it is sown 
frequently at the rate of forty to fifty pounds of seed per 



BROME GRASS 169 

acre. For lawns a mixture of 30 pounds of Kentucky 
blue grass, 15 pounds of redtop and 6 pounds of white 
clover per acre is recommended. Blue grass does best in 
a medium clay loam that is well supplied with humus and 
lime. It does not do well in semiarid regions or on exceed- 
ingly heavy clay or light sand. 

BROME GRASS 

Brome grass was introduced into the United States from 
Europe and is now grown quite generally on the Great 
Plains, where timothy and blue grass do not thrive. It 
has been grown for centuries on the plains of Russia and 
is there regarded with great favor. It roots deeply, con- 
sequently stands drought well, and makes an excellent 
early spring and late fall pasture. It is not considered so 
good for hay as timothy and will not become popular in 
those states in which timothy, clover, and blue grass can 
be readily grown. 

Sowing the Seed. — Brome grass is usually sown in the 
spring like timothy, blue grass, or redtop, using about 
twenty pounds of seed per acre when sown alone, or about 
eight pounds when sown with a grass mixture. It may, 
like timothy, be sown with early seeding of fall rye or 
winter wheat. If sown in the fall under favorable condi- 
tions, it makes a good pasture the next fall. 

The temptation to sow brome grass on fields infested 
with quack grass, and then harvest it for seed, has been the 
cause of much of the brome grass seed becoming contam- 
inated with quack grass seed. Farmers purchasing brome 
grass seed should see that it is free from such contamina- 
tion. When there is doubt as to its purity, it is best to send 
a sample for inspection to the seed-testing department of 



I70 THE HAY GRASSES 

the state experiment station or to the United States 
Department of Agriculture. 

Harvesting. — Brome grass grows from four to five feet 
tall and stands erect, so that if desired for seed, it can be 
cut and bound with a grain harvester. It should stand 
in the shock until dry and then be stored away in barns 
like grain or brought direct from the field to the thresher. 
Like timothy it is threshed readily with a grain thresher. 

Brome grass should be cut for hay when in blossom. It 
cures well and is handled the same as other hay grasses. 
Its feeding value compares favorably with that of timothy. 
After cutting, if moisture is sufficient, it grows up so as to 
furnish excellent fall pasture. It is not readily injured 
through pasturing, as it forms a very heavy sod. Brome 
grass fields are greatly helped by disking deeply after the 
second crop of hay has been removed. When brome grass 
is growm for hay it is well to grow it in a four-year rotation 
like timothy, planting corn or some other cultivated crop 
on the brome grass sod. On account of the numerous 
rootstocks in the ground it requires a sharp plow and much 
power to break the sod. Unless the sod is turned com- 
pletely over the numerous roots are apt to send up new 

shoots. 

ORCHARD GRASS 

Orchard grass is not grown so generally as timothy or 
blue grass in the United States. It is raised most abun- 
dantly in the states south of the blue grass and timothy 
regions. It is also becoming quite extensively grown in the 
Pacific States. 

Orchard grass grows two to three feet tall and is readily 
recognized by its smooth stems and by the panicles which 
consist of one-sided clusters on top of the branching stems. 



ORCHARD GRASS 



171 



Uses. — Orchard grass is grown for hay, seed, and pas- 
ture. As a hay crop it is inferior to timothy and redtop, 
but ranks well as a pasture grass for early spring and late 
fall. It does not spread by rootstocks nor does it branch 
or stool out strongly. It grows in 
bunches or tufts and does not cover the 
ground completely like redtop, timothy, 
or blue grass, hence the lower yields of 
hay per acre and the necessity of re- 
seeding more often. 

Sowing the Seed. — The weight of 
orchard grass seed varies from fourteen 
to twenty-two pounds per measured 
bushel, depending on how closely it is 
graded. From a bushel to one and a 
half bushels of seed per acre should be 
used when sown alone or about one 
fourth bushel when sown as a mixture. 
When desired for seed it is left to ripen, 
and is cut and bound, like timothy, 
with a harvester. After it has been 
well cured in the shock or mow, it is 
threshed with a grain thresher, especially 
arranged with proper screens for threshing grass seed. 
Kentucky is the leading state in the production of orchard 
grass seed. 




Fig- 95- — Orchard grass. 



REDTOP 



Redtop, a perennial grass, is a native of the United 
States and grows wild over an extensive area. As a hay 
crop it ranks closely with timothy and blue grass. It gives 
good yields on undrained lands that are too low and wet 



172 THE HAY GRASSES 

for the production of timothy or blue grass. It will do 
better on acid soils than any of our other hay grasses. 
Redtop is an erect plant, about three feet in height. The 
root growth is shallow but branching, which enables it to 
make a dense sod that covers the entire surface of the 
ground. 

Sowing the Seed. — When sown for a meadow about 
twenty pounds of clean seed should be used per acre. In 
a grass mixture of timothy and alsike clover it is well to 
use lo pounds of redtop, 5 pounds of timothy, and 5 
pounds of alsike clover. On low, undrained lands redtop 
and alsike clover should be sown in combination, as the hay 
or pasture will be of better quality and relished more by 
farm animals if grown as a mixture. The seed, if free from 
chaff, can be handled by a grass seeder. When sowing 
redtop seed mixed with chaff, better results will be secured 
if the sowing is done by hand. 

Harvesting. — Redtop reaches the cutting stage about 
two or three weeks later than blue grass or common red 
clover. When grown in combination with alsike clover, 
they both reach the proper cutting stage for hay at the same 
time. Redtop is cut with a mower and cured the same as 
timothy. It cures readily and sheds water well when 
stacked. 

HOME PROJECTS 

I. Prepare sheaves of grasses, clover, and alfalfa for show 
purposes in the following manner. Collect tall, healthy, leafy 
samples having medium-sized stems, and cure slowly in a dark 
room or shady place where free circulation of air can be obtained 
without a strong draft. Do not pile the plants too thickly or 
the leaves will turn yellow or red and may mold. Stirring will 



HOME PROJECTS 173 

also help to cure them properly. Put up neatly in bundles or 
sheaves about three or four inches in diameter at the base. Tie 
these bundles with a strong cord. Do not use wide ribbons or 
binder twine. For the timothy and blue grass samples choose 
large heads and long stems and strip off the leaves of each stalk 
before making the sheaf. With alfalfa and clover the dry 
leaves may drop off in handling. This may be prevented by 
covering your samples with a damp cloth for a short time before 
making up the sheaf, but do not get your samples too damp. 
Collect the clover when in blossom, the alfalfa when just be- 
ginning to bloom, and timothy and other grasses when the heads 
have passed the blossoming stage. Prepare two or more 
sheaves for your county fair or other grain shows. 

2. Grow a plot of timothy seeded at the rate of 6 quarts 
per acre. For comparison, also a plot of clover and timothy 
mixture, sown at the rate of 4 quarts of timothy and 2 quarts 
of clover. 

3. Prepare samples of clover seed and timothy seed for ex- 
hibition purposes. 



CHAPTER XIII 
POTATOES 

The potato is an American plant, and was introduced 
into European countries soon after the discovery of America. 
In Europe potatoes did not readily find acceptance, but 
the American colonists regarded them with more favor, 
and cultivated them to a considerable extent. Ireland 
was the first of the European countries to realize the im- 
portance of the potato crop and grow it on an extensive 
scale. The potato became so common in Ireland that it 
is now generally known as the Irish potato to distinguish 
it from the southern sweet potato. 

Classification. — Potatoes are divided into two great 
classes commonly known as early and late potatoes. In 
each class are numerous varieties. Seedsmen have used 
the term '^ variety " in a careless way. Many of the so- 
called varieties are the same kind of potatoes. The 
introduction of many varieties has been more of a hin- 
drance than a help to the advancement of potato culture. 
Often several types of potatoes are grown on the same 
farm, and in the same hill, or row. Mixed varieties of 
potatoes do not sell well on the market. Among the 
standard varieties that are now receiving much attention 
are the following : Early : Early Ohio, Early Rose, Bliss- 
Triumph, and Irish Cobbler. Late : Rural New Yorker, 
Green Mountain, Burbank, and Peerless. / 

174 



HABITS OF GROWTH 175 

The period of growth of the early potatoes varies from 
70 to 100 days, while the late sorts require from no to 130 
days for maturity. 

Except those grown for special purposes, where extra 
prices can be secured, the late potatoes are more popular 
and are grown more widely for the market. 

Habits of Growth. — The tuber is not the true potato 
seed although it is frequently spoken of as such. The true 



Fig. 96. — Rural New Yorker potatoes. This is a late variety. 

seeds of the potato are contained in the potato ball which 
is found on the top of the plant following the blossoming 
period. When the desire is to establish new varieties 
the true seed is used. The potatoes grown from the true 
seed often differ widely in shape, size, and color from the 
tubers grown on the plant from which the seed ball is taken. 
It requires several years of patient selection to develop a 
good type of potatoes grown from seed. 

Potatoes do not mix or cross, but will hold firmly to the 
original breed of the foundation stock of tubers. The 



176 POTATOES 

variety may be modified by selection and by the condition 
under which they are grown, but the type remains the same. 
The blossom of the potato may be cross-fertilized, but this 
does not appear in any way to affect the tuber ; however, 
the true seed or potato ball is materially affected and these 
seeds if planted will not reproduce the variety of potatoes 
from which they are taken. 

Uses. — The chief use of potatoes is for human food. A 
considerable quantity is used for the manufacture of starch, 
potato flour, animal food, and alcohol, when the price of 
potatoes is sufficiently low to admit of their use for such 
purposes. Large potato centers often use the small or ir- 
regular potatoes that are not suited for market for starch 
and alcohol. The European countries utiHze their potato 
crops to much better advantage and with less waste than 
the United States. When the market price of potatoes is 
low farmers make use of them for the feeding of farm 
animals. 

All farm animals including poultry relish potatoes. 
They can be fed raw to advantage to all animals except 
poultry and hogs. For these they should be cooked. 

Storing for Seed. — It is important to keep seed 
potatoes in a cool cellar so as to prevent sprouting, for if 
allowed to sprout much plant food is removed and the 
vitality is materially reduced. If the windows and doors 
leading to the potatoes in storage are left open during the 
night and closed during the day after warm weather arrives 
the arrangement will assist in keeping the cellar cool. If 
the potatoes have sprouted, the sprouts should be removed 
before planting. 

Planting. — The tubers used for seed are usually cut be- 
fore planting. The cutting is often done by hand. Machines 



SEED BED 177 

are now used for cutting where large quantities of seed are 
needed for planting. Potatoes are planted in hills or in drills. 
Hills are placed approximately three or three and a half 
feet apart and seed dropped at the rate of two or three 
pieces to the hill. The drill method is now used generally 
where large acreages are planted. When planted in drills 
the pieces are dropped twelve to fourteen inches apart in 
the row and the rows are usually three or three and a half 
feet apart. This distance admits of the best use of modern 
machinery for planting, cultivating, spraying, and digging. 
From twelve to fifteen bushels of seed are required per acre 
for a good stand. Only good sound seed should be planted. 
Immediately after planting, the fine-tooth harrow should 
be run over the field and continued at intervals in order 




Fig. 97. — Preparation of the seed bed by harrowing and rolling. The potato planter 

is at the left. 

to sprout weed seeds. The harrow can be used to advan- 
tage even after the potatoes are above ground, providing 
it is done in the afternoon of a fair day when the plants are 
not so brittle as when filled with moisture. 

Seed Bed. — Potatoes may be grown on any fertile, 
well-drained soil, but do best on a rich sandy loam, 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 12 



lyS POrATOES 

abundantly supplied with humus. A young clover field 
in which a second cutting of clover has been turned under 
in the fall offers fine conditions for potato planting the 
following season. If land is plo\ved in the early fall and left 
in the rough during the winter, it can readily be put in good 
tilth by disking in the spring. The line-tooth harrow should 
be run at weekly intervals after disking to prevent baking, 
loss of moisture, and for the purpose of killing weeds. A 
deep, mellow seed bed well supplied with fertility is essential 
for large yields of good-sized potatoes. Potatoes should 
not be planted on heavy clay lands that are not properly 
drained and filled with humus. Light sandy soil, low in 
fertility and humus content, should also be avoided. 

The plowing under of clover or vetch with the heavy 
application of barnyard manure w'ill soon enable one to 
grow potatoes to advantage on light, sandy soil or on the 
heavy clays, provided the drainage is good. One should 
never attempt to grow potatoes on creek or river bottoms 
that overflow periodically, or on marsh land where the 
ground-water line is only a few feet beneath the surface. 
Peaty marsh lands should be avoided as they lack uniformity 
in character and the soil is too loose. The land should be 
uniform in tilth and fertility in order to assure an even 
growth and a good yield. 

Diseases. — Chief among the diseases that affect po- 
tatoes may be mentioned early and late blight, scab, and 
black leg. 

Both early and late bHght in their first stages affect the 
leaves of the plants and later the stems and tubers. These 
diseases are controlled by spraying at intervals with Bor- 
deaux mixture. This mixture is made as follows: dis- 
solve 5 pounds of high-grade stone lime in 50 gallons of 



DISEASES 



^79 



water. In another cask contain ino; 50 gallons of water 
suspend 5 pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol) in a 




Fig. 98. Potatoes sprayed for prevention of blight on right. Potatoes not sprayed 

on left. 



gunny sack and place just beneath the surface until dis- 
solved. When well dissolved the lime and the copper sul- 
phate solutions should be mixed. This is best done if the 
solutions are taken in pailfuls from each cask alternately 
and put into a third. It is well to test the solution to 
determine its effect upon the leaves of the plants. This 
can be done by putting a bright knife blade into the 
solution. If the blade remains bright the solution will not 
injure the plants, but if the blade takes on a coppery hue 
more lime should be added. The lime prevents the copper 
sulphate solution from injuring the plants. It should then 
be put into a spraying machine and sprayed on the plants 
in the form of a fine mist. It requires about fifty gallons of 



i8o POTATOES 

the mixture to spray one acre. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture may also control other fungus diseases not fully 
understood at the present time. 

Potato scab is a disease that affects the potato ex- 
ternally, making ugly blotches upon the surface. The dis- 
ease is carried by the germs which remain upon the seed 
potato or are left in the ground, thus affecting the succeed- 
ing crop. The scab disease lives in the ground for several 
years. After scabby potatoes have been grown on a piece 
of land, no more potatoes should be grown on this piece 
for at least six years. 

Where potatoes have become affected with scab the 
grower should secure seed potatoes that are free from this 
disease, or treat the affected ones by submerging sacks of 
the potatoes for two hours in a solution made by adding 
one pint of formaldehyde to 30 gallons of water. Other 
treatments may be used, but the formaldehyde is most 
simple and effective. Whole potatoes should be treated 
and cut for seed after treatment. If potatoes so treated 
are planted on scab-free ground the disease will not be found 
on the succeeding crop. 

Insect enemies. — The Colorado beetle, more commonly 
known as the potato bug, is the chief insect enemy. 
Other insect enemies that do more or less damage are the 
flea beetle, blister beetle, and grasshopper. 

For control of potato insects, arsenical poisons are 
used. Paris green and arsenate of lead are the poisons 
commonly applied. A Paris green solution is made by 
placing 2 pounds of standard Paris green in 50 gallons of 
water. If sprayed on the potato plants after the dew has 
dried off in the morning on a day that promises fair, the first 
batch of insects will usually be controlled. It is often neces- 



HARVESTING 



i8i 



sary to use a second application a week or two after the 
first one. If rain follows within a few hours after the first 
application it is best to respray at once. Paris green may 
be added to the Bordeaux mixture and the potatoes can 
thereby be sprayed for the prevention of blight and insects 
at the same time. 

Instead of Paris green, arsenate of lead may be added to 
the Bordeaux mixture at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 gallons 




Fig. 99. — A Wisconsin potato field. Note the quantity of potatoes. 

of the solution. The arsenate of lead sticks to the potato 
leaves better than does Paris green, particularly in damp 
weather. 

Harvesting. — Potatoes should be harvested when in 
proper condition for marketing or storing away for winter 
use. The proper condition is indicated by the drying 
up of the vines. The vines of ripe potatoes when pulled 
free themselves from the tubers. Unripe potatoes adhere 



I 82 POTATOES 

quite firmly to the stalks. The skin or outside covering 
of the potato will rub off readily if not properly matured. 





Fig. loo Hill selection of seed potatoes. The hills piled separately are to be used 

for seed. 



and the potato will not be firm and crisp when cut. In 
order to keep well in storage potatoes should be fully 
matured. 

Where potatoes are grown on a commercial scale they 
are harvested by machinery. Several good potato diggers 
are now on the market. Potatoes should be allowed to 
dry off before being stored or taken to the market. This is 
done by putting them in piles where they can be aired. 
They should not be left on the ground subject to strong sun- 
light or dew, but should be covered lightly with straw or 
dry potato vines. 

Storing Potatoes. — Potatoes are stored in cellars or 
warehouses in which they can be kept at a low temperature, 
about 34° to 40° Fahrenheit. Often they are put in pits 
and if properly cared for, come through the winter in 



POTATO IMPROVEMENT 



183 



excellent shape. Whether potatoes are put in pits or 
stored in cellars, provision should be made for proper venti- 
lation or they will deteriorate rapidly. Potatoes should be 
carefully sorted and the small and damaged ones should be 
rejected before storing or marketing. 

Potato Improvement. — It has been found advantageous 
for a whole community to grow one standard potato instead 
of several varieties, as a better price can be obtained from 
one straight grade than if mixed shipments are made. The 
proper marketing of potatoes is very essential to the success 
of the growers. 

Much improvement is being brought about through 
careful work with distinct varieties. By intensive selection 




Green Mountain potatoes after improvement by two years of hill selection. 



of seed potatoes for type and disease resistance, a good 
standard marketable potato can soon be estabhshed. Such 
a potato can well take the place of the mixed types now 
so often found in many communities. 



1 84 



POTATOES 



Hill Selection. — The method of improvement known 
as hill selection is conducted in the following manner. 
Single potatoes are cut and the pieces from one potato only 
are planted in a single hill. During the growing period 
the characteristic vine growth is studied carefully and any 
hills that show disease or improper vine growth are marked 
and discarded. The hills showing uniform, healthy growth 
are left to ripen and are harvested separately. There will 




Fig. 102. — Only hills that produce uniform size potatoes should be used for seed. 

be a wide variation of the productive power of the individual 
potatoes used as seed. The hills of potatoes showing large 
yield of uniform potatoes should be placed in separate 
piles. In this manner a few hills can be selected that have 
much higher powers of production than the average. This 
method may be carried forward for several years until a high 
yielding standard strain of potatoes has been developed. 
Quality as well as quantity is considered in hill selection. 



SCORING POTATOES 



i8s 



SCORING POTATOES 

I. Judge samples of potatoes, using the following score 
card and directions for scoring. 

POTATO SCORE CARD 

Name and Number of Scorer 

Sample Number Date 







1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


' 


10 


I. Trueness to breed type 


20 












! 






— 


2. Uniformity in regard 
to size .... 


10 












! 

i 

i 






3. Conformity in regard 
to shape .... 


ID 












1 






4. Eyes shallow . . . 

5. Freedom from scab 

and other diseases 


10 


1 
















- 


15 




















6. Freedom from injuries 


15 






















7. Percentage of food to 
waste 


10 




















— 


8. Texture of tuber 


10 










— 


= 




— 


= 


Total 


100 

1 









DIRECTIONS FOR SCORING POTATOES 

1 . If the potato does not look like the type called for in the 
name of the sample or if it is some other kind of potato, cut 20 
points. 

2. The best seed potatoes should weigh about as follows, 
in ounces : 

Early Ohio . . . 4 to 8 Rural New Yorker . 8 to 1 2 

Triumph . . . 3 to 8 Peerless . . . . 6 to 10 

Early Rose . . . 6 to 16 Irish Cobbler . . . 5 to 8 

Burbank . . . 6 to 12 Green Mountain . . 8 to 12 



1 86 



POTATOES 



Cut I point for each half ounce below the lesser weight and 
I point for each half ounce above the greater weight. 

3. Cut I to 5 points according to degree of poor form. 

4. The eyes of the potato should be shallow in all potatoes 
hsted under No. 2 except possibly in the case of the Triumph 
and the Irish Cobbler. They generally have rather deep eyes. 
In case of Triumph and Irish Cobbler potatoes cut .25 of a point 
for every deep eye. In case of all other potatoes listed under 
No. 2 cut .5 point for every deep eye. 

5. Cut 15 points for any disease seen on a tuber. 

6. Cut 15 points for any injury such as a bad bruise, a severe 
cut or hole punched by any apparatus used in digging, or for 
generally peeled-up skin of tuber. 

7. Cut I to 5 points according to the amount of tuber that 
would probably have to be wasted in careful paring. 




Fig. 103. — Green Mountain potatoes. First prize winning sample on right; second, 

on left. 



8. Only in extreme cases is it necessary to cut open pota- 
toes to determine prizes. Allow full scores for texture unless 
a tuber has to be cut open. If the potato is cut open and a 



HOME PROJECTS 



t87 



hollow spot is found, cut lo points. If the potato is spong>- 
or if dark streaks run through it, cut i to 5 points. 




Fig. 104. — A boys' potato-growing contest. 

The above rules are for choice seed or prize exhibits. In case 
of market potato exhibits one should be a little more lenient in 
cutting the scores. 

EXERCISES 

1. What varieties of potatoes are grown in your locality? 

2. Why is a rich sandy or light loam soil best for |)otatoes? 

3. What kind of hills should be selected for seed ? 



HOME PROJECTS 

1. Select potatoes for seed, first by marking desirable hills 
while the vines are green, next by saving the most desirable of 
these marked hills at digging time. 

2. Grow a plot of potatoes, keeping an accurate record of cost 
of production. 



CHAPTER XIV 
COTTON 

The j&rst introduction of cotton into the American 
colonies was probably made in Jamestown, Virginia. By 
1780 it had become one of the important products of South 
Carolina. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney 
in 1793 led to an enormous increase in cotton production. 

Characteristics of the Plant. — As grown in the United 
States, the cotton plant is generally erect, somewhat 
bushy, and usually from two to six feet tall. In its native 
home, the tropics, it is a perennial, but in this country it 
is an annual, being easily killed by frost. The longest 
branohes of the plant are usually near the base and in most 
varieties the length of the limbs gradually decreases toward 
the top of the main stem, giving to the plant a more or less 
conical shape. Productiveness and earliness are indicated 
largely by the arrangement of the branches. This is also 
an important means of distinguishing the varieties. There 
is wide variation in the size and shape of leaves and this 
also aids in distinguishing the varieties. 

The cotton plant has a strong branching root that pene- 
trates deep into the soil. However, the depth of penetra- 
tion is modified greatly by the nature of the soil and sub- 
soil in which the plant is grown. 

If cross-fertilization takes place it must be during the 
short time that the flower is open. With some varieties 
the flowers open at sunrise, close late in the day and never 

188 



CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANT 



189 



open again. The petals of upland cotton are white or 
creamy in color ; those of Sea Island cotton are bright 
yellow. During the day they turn pink or bright red. 

The portion of the plant containing the seed and lint is 
called the boll, which usually has four or five divisions. 




Fig. 105. — A typical cotton plant bearing cotton ready to be picked. 

The bolls vary greatly in size, depending upon the varieties. 
Usually they are from one and a half to two and a half 
inches in length and from one to one and a half inches 
in diameter. The big-boll varieties average from 40 to 70 
bolls per pound of seed cotton and the small-boll varieties 
from 80 to 130 per pound. 



I90 COTTON 

The Fiber. — There is but Httle twist in immature fiber, 
and based upon the amount of twisting, there are in every 
lot of cotton three kinds of fibers, — mature, partly mature, 
and immature. The strength of cloth and thread depends 
largely upon the amount of twist or state of maturity of 




Fig. io6. — A fine grade of cotton fiber. 

the fiber. The more mature the fibers are, the more uni- 
formly and satisfactorily will they absorb the dyes used in 
the manufacture of colored cloth. 

The following factors generally determine the value of 
cotton fiber: (i) strength, (2) length, (3) fineness, (4) ma- 
turity, (5) uniformity. Usually the longest fibers are the 
finest and these are used in the manufacture of the more 
expensive cotton fabrics. The following are about the 
average lengths of the fibers of the principal kinds of cotton : 

American upland 9 inch 

American long staple 1.3 inches 

Egyptian 1.4 inches 

Sea Island 1.6 inches 



COTTON FIBER 



191 



The Seed. — In each division of the boll there is a 
lock of cotton, which contains six to twelve seeds, making 
about 25 to 40 seeds in one boll. The number of seeds 
depends largely upon the variety, as some varieties have 
much larger seeds than others. The color of the seeds 
varies from white to blue, depending largely upon the 
variety. In most varieties of upland cotton, the seed is 
covered with fuzz. In some of the long-staple varieties, 
the seed is practically free from fuzz and is general!}^ black 




Fig. 107. — Cotton bolls at various stages of growth. 



in color. The legal weight of a bushel of seed in most 
states is 32 pounds. 

Varieties. — Cotton grown in the United States may be 
classified into three groups: i. upland cotton; 2. Sea 
Island cotton; 3. Egyptian cotton. The first group con- 
stitutes about 99 per cent of the cotton produced in the 



ig2 



COTTON 




COTTON BREEDING 193 

United States. This group includes both the long-staple 
and short-staple varieties. 

The second group, or Sea Island cotton, is grown only in 
limited areas, in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. It 
is considered a profitable crop only within a distance of 
about 100 miles of the coast. The fiber is long, fine, and 
silky. It is considered the best fiber produced and sells 
for the highest market price. 

The third group, Egyptian cotton, includes the leading 
varieties now grown in Egypt. The fiber of this cotton is 
somewhat longer than that of the American upland long 
staple, but is shorter and less valuable than that of Sea 
Island. During recent years, experiments have been con- 
ducted in practically all the cotton-growing states with this 
variety. It is not considered a profitable crop except 
within very limited areas. In the southern parts of 
Arizona and California where the growing season is long 
and where irrigation is practiced, this cotton usually 
gives very good yields and produces a fiber equal to that 
imported. 

Cotton Breeding. — Cotton breeding has received little 
attention in the cotton belt. The low yields of cotton in 
the South are not due to poor soils and unfavorable climatic 
conditions alone, but principally to the planting of unim- 
proved seed. A large proportion of the farmers of the 
cotton belt do not practice seed selection, consequently the 
seed of this crop is impure, mixed, and in other respects 
inferior. Pure varieties, with ordinary usage, usually ^' run 
out " within a few years. This is due to a lack of seed 
selection, to cross-fertilization, and to the mixing of seed 
at public cotton gins. 

With proper selection and breeding, any of the following 

M, AND H. PLANT PROD. 1 3 



194 COITON 

characteristics can be greatl}' improved : (i) yield of 
lint, (2) uniformity and length of lint, (3) size of boll, 
(4) resistance to disease, (5) earliness, (6) resistance to 
storms. 

Climatic Conditions. — Since the native home of cotton 
is in the tropics, its production in the United States is 
limited to the warmer sections. Practically no cotton is 
grown north of the 37th parallel of latitude. It is not cul- 
tivated to any considerable extent north of the northern 
boundary of North Carolina and Oklahoma. Warm days 
and nights are very necessary during the early growth of 
cotton. Four or five months of high temperature are re- 
quired for the complete maturing of this plant. There 
should be no frost later than April i nor earlier than 
November i for the best production of cotton. 

Rainfall is a very important factor in cotton production, 
except where grown under irrigation. During the growing 
period, the rainfall should be abundant enough to furnish 
a good supply of moisture. During the picking season 
dry weather is desired, in order that the highest quality of 
lint may be produced, as wet weather accompanied by high 
winds is injurious to the quality of the lint. 

Soils. — Cotton is adapted to a wide variety of soils. 
Sandy loam and clay loam usually give the best results. 
As a rule, light sandy soils produce the smallest yields. 
As cotton is a more profitable crop on poorer land than is 
corn, the uplands are generally planted to cotton and the 
more fertile lowlands to corn. Heavy clay soils or soils 
having a hard, compact subsoil are not suitable for cotton 
production. Commercial fertiHzer in some form is usually 
applied to cotton fields. The type of soil and its fertility 
usually determine the kind of fertilizers used. 



PLANTING AND CULTIVATION 



195 



Planting and Cultivation. — Cotton requires a well-pre- 
pared seed bed. Practically all of the cotton land east of 
the Mississippi is prepared in the spring. As a rule, land 
intended for cotton 
receives only one 
plowing before the 
seed is planted. 
This practice usually 
consists of forming 
ridges or beds which 
are about forty 
inches apart and 
three or four inches 
high. The greater 
part of this plowing 
is done in February 
and March, the time 
depending upon the 
climate and soil con- 
ditions. On heavy 
clay land it is a 
common practice to plow in the fall in order that the soil 
may be pulverized by winter freezing. 

Practically all cotton seed is planted with the single row 
drill, usually from one to two and a half inches deep. 
The amount of seed planted per acre depends largely 
upon the variety and varies from a half to one and a half 
bushels. Cultivation should begin just as soon as the 
plants can be seen in the row. The cheapest and best in- 
strument with which to give the first cultivation is the 
ordinary spike-tooth harrow or weeder. The first two cul- 
tivations can be fairly deep. All subsequent cultivations 




Fig. 109. — Specimens of cotton bolls. 



196 COTTON 

should be shallow. Thinning the cotton usually begins 
when it is about three or four inches high. The degree of 
thinning depends upon the variety, soil, and climatic con- 
ditions. On the poorer uplands, it is a common practice 
to leave ten to fourteen inches between the plants in the 
drill. On the low, fertile bottom soils, wider spacing is 
necessary and usually on such soils cotton is thinned to 
allow twenty-four to thirty inches between plants. Shallow- 
cultivation is necessary, for the cotton plant puts out 
numerous feeding roots near the surface of the ground. 
Such cultivation should be continued until the plant is 
fairly well fruited. Usually the latter part of July or the 
first of August is the time for cultivation to cease. This, 
however, depends upon seasonal conditions. 

There is nothing else that will increase the yield of cotton 
so easily and so cheaply as the growing of leguminous crops 
in a rotation. The following rotation is considered the 
best for the cotton belt, where rainfall will permit of the 
growing of these crops : 

First Year. — Corn, with cowpeas sown broadcast between 

rows. 
Second Year. — Oats, sown on the corn land, which was 

plowed in the fall. Cowpeas after the oat crop is harvested. 
Third Year. — Cotton. 

(This rotation cannot be practiced in the dry-farming section 
of the Southwest.) 

Harvesting. — Picking is the most expensive operation 
connected with cotton production. The picking season 
usually opens the latter part of August or the first of Sep- 
tember and is practically over by the middle of December. 

A day's work for an average picker is about 175 pounds 
of seed cotton. However, skillful pickers are able to obtain 



HARVESTING 



197 



much larger quantities. An average yield is about 200 
pounds of lint per acre. After picking, the most common 
practice is to haul the seed cotton to a public gin where the 
lint is separated from the seed. This separation is made 
by means of circular saws revolving at a very high speed. 
A large brush removes the lint from the saws and passes it 




Fig. no. 



Keystone View Co. 
Loads of cotton ready for the cotton gin. 



to a condenser from which it enters the press where it is 
compacted into bales. The size of bales varies somewhat 
but usually they are 27 by 54 inches and contain about 
500 pounds of lint cotton. The bales are usually entirely 
covered with a coarse cloth, or '' bagging," which is bound 
by six steel bands extending around the bale. For shipping 
purposes, these bales are pressed to a still smaller size in 
order to reduce the cost of shipping. 



igS COTTON 

Marketing. — The quality and grade of cotton largely 
determine the price. The grade depends principally upon 
the color of fiber, the amount of trash, and the amount of 
immature fiber. The grade is not usually influenced by the 
length of fiber, but the length has an important influence in 
determining the price. 

Principal Uses. — Cotton is grown mostly for its fiber 
which is used extensively in the manufacture of many kinds 
of cotton goods. A number of products are made from the 
seed. Large quantities of oil are extracted from the seed 
and the residue is used for cattle feed and as a fertilizer. 
Nitrogen is the chief fertilizer constituent in cotton seed. 
Phosphoric acid and potash are also present in small 
amounts. 

A ton of cotton seed usually produces 750 to 900 pounds 
of hulls, depending upon the kind of machinery employed 
in the process. The hulls are used extensively as cattle 
feed. 

Insect Enemies. — Several hundred species of insects are 
known to feed upon the cotton plant. Some of the more 
destructive are the boll weevil, bollworm, cotton caterpillar, 
and cutworm. 

The boll weevil has spread over practically two thirds 
of the cotton belt and has done more damage than all the 
other insects combined. The boll weevil in the adult stage 
passes the winter in grass or any kind of crop residue left 
on the field. In spring the insects emerge and lay their 
eggs upon the young buds and later in the season upon 
the bolls of the cotton plant, into which the larvae bore 
after hatching. As a rule all buds that are attacked 
drop off. However, the larger bolls may be attacked and 
still produce one or more locks of cotton. There are a 



DISEASES 199 

number of generations in one season and the injury is gen- 
erally greatest the latter part of the season. It is esti- 
mated that the progeny of a single pair in one season may 
amount to 134,000,000 individuals. 

Various methods have been employed in combating this 
pest. Reducing the number of insects in the fall by early 
destruction of the plants has proved fairly effective. The 
growing of early maturing varieties, early planting, use of 
fertilizers, proper spacing of plants, and thorough cultiva- 
tion are other means used in controlling this insect. 

Winds and flooded streams are important means of trans- 
porting boll weevils from infected sections to uninfected 




Fig. III. — Early effect of anthracnose on young cotton plants. 

areas. The pest is also disseminated by shipping seed into 
a territory from an infested section. 

The cotton bollworm and caterpillar are difficult to keep 
under control in some sections. Poisoning seems to give 
fairly good results. Fall plowing is generally recommended. 

Diseases. — In some sections, particularly in the humid 
regions, the cotton plant is subject to a number of diseases, 



200 COTTON 

some of which do considerable damage. The following are 
the most important : cotton wilt, root knot, anthracnose 
or boll knot, root rot, and rust. 

Diseases of cotton are controlled to a large extent by 
breeding of resistant varieties, rotation of crops, selection 
of clean, early varieties of seed, and proper cultivation. 

EXERCISES 

1. Outline a four-year rotation suitable for a cotton farm. 

2. Which cotton fields are more likely to be seriously affected 
by the boll weevil, those on which cotton is grown in rotation 
once in three years, or those growing cotton every year ? Why ? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. By actual trial determine the cost of producing and har- 
vesting an acre of cotton. 

2. Compare the yield of upland and Sea Island cotton by 
growing and harvesting equal areas of each, side by side, under 
the same conditions, keeping accurate records of all processes. 



PART II. HORTICULTURE 

CHAPTER I 
PROPAGATION BY SEEDS AND SPORES 

Propagation by seeds is the most general method of 
plant production. Most of the annuals, many of the 
flowering perennials and forest trees, and some of the 
shrubs are propagated by seeds. Even our fruit trees come 
from seeds planted in the nursery, which are later grafted 
or budded before transplanting to the orchard. 

Seeds. — A seed is a small living plant in a dormant 
state, with a sufficient amount of plant food to maintain 
it until it can manufacture its own. Each kind of seed 
differs from that of every other kind, but it is often diffi- 
cult to distinguish between some of these kinds. Cab- 
bage and cauliflower seed, for example, are similar in most 
characteristics. As different plants may be identified 
by the variations in their foliage, flowers, stems, and fruit, 
so seeds may be identified by the variations in their form, 
size, color, taste, smell, and texture. 

Testing Purity of Seeds. — The value of seeds depends 
first, upon their purity. Large seeds like corn and beans 
are generally pure, that is, they are not mixed or adulter- 
ated. Small seeds, such as those of our grasses and clovers, 
are likely to be mixed with weed seeds, dirt, chaff, and 
other useless and often harmful foreign matter. White 
clover, winter vetch, alsike clover, orchard grass, Cana- 
dian blue grass, and red clover are especially liable to 



202 



FROFAGATION BY SEEDS AxVD SPORES 



contain foreign seeds. It is essential, therefore, that only 
pure seed be purchased. Many states have passed laws 
compelling their seedsmen to offer for sale only those seeds 
that contain not more than a certain small percentage of 
impurities unless the percentage of impurity is indicated 
on the label. 

Germination Tests. — After purity, the next most im- 
portant quality is vitahty. It is advisable, therefore, for 
the cultivator to know before planting whether his seeds 

will grow or not. We cannot tell 
by the exterior appearance of 
seed whether it is of high or low 
vitality. 

The vitality of seeds depends 
largely upon their age. Some 
seeds, such as peas, will not ger- 
minate well after they are two 
years old, while other seeds main- 
tain their vitality for several years. 
Chickweed seeds have been kept 
for twenty-five years and ger- 
minated at the end of that time. The length of time that 
seeds maintain their germinative power is called the lon- 
gevity of seeds. 

Seeds also fail to germinate when they have become too 
dry or when they have been subjected to freezing, espe- 
cially before becoming sufficiently mature or dry. Seeds 
may fail to germinate also when they have been stored while 
damp or when they have failed to mature properly. One 
of the most frequent reasons, however, why seeds fail to 
germinate properly is that of unfavorable external condi- 
tions at planting time. 




Seed testers. 



GERMINATION 



203 



LONGEVITY OF SEEDS 
(From Vilmorin's Tables) 



Seeds 


Average 
Longevity 
IN Years 


Extreme 
Longevity 
IN Years 


1 Seeds 


Average 
Longevity 
IN Years 


Extreme 
Longevity 
IN Years 


Barley , , . 


3 


— 


Orchard grass . 


1 2 


— 


Bean . . . . 


1 ' 


8 


Parsnip . . . 


2 


4 


Beet . . . . 


' 6 


10 


Pea ... . 


3 


8 


Cabbage . . 


5 


10 


Pumpkin . . 


4 or 5 


9 


Carrot . . . 


4 or 5 


10 


Purslane . . 


7 


10 


Catnip . . . 


5 


6 


Radish . . . 


5 


10 


Cauliflower 


5 


10 


Rye ... . 


2 


— 


Clover . . . 


i ^ 


— 


Soy bean . . 


2 


6 


Cucumber . . 


i '° 


10 


Strawberry 


3 


6 


Dandelion . . 


1 2 


5 


Tomato . . . 


4 


9 


Kohl-rabi . . 


1 5 


10 


Turnip . . . 


5 


10 


Maize . . . 


2 


4 


Watermelon . 


6 


10 


Oats . . . . 


3 




Wheat . . . 


2 


7 


Onion . . . 




7 









External Requirements for Germination. — A seed, being 
a live plant in a dormant state, requires certain external 
conditions to resume its active growth. So long as any 
one of these conditions is wanting, the seed remains dor- 
mant and finally dies. The conditions necessary for 
germination are abundant moisture, warmth, and the 
presence of oxygen. 

Moisture. — So long as seeds are kept dry, no matter 
how warm the surroundings may be, they will not ger- 
minate. The degree of moisture generally needed to start 
germination is complete saturation. To seeds in the soil, the 
moisture is furnished by the capillary action of soil water, 
and the more quickly this saturation takes place, other 
conditions being favorable, the sooner the seeds germinate. 



204 



PROPAGATION BY SEEDS AND SPORES 



This has led to the practice of soaking seeds before sow- 
ing, especially hard-coated ones like asparagus or canna 
seed, to hasten germination. Beans and corn are some- 
times soaked overnight before planting. 

Temperature. — Few seeds will germinate in a tempera- 
ture below freezing. It is because of low temperature that 
weed seeds fail to grow during the winter, and remain dor- 
mant until the soil becomes warmed by the sun in the 

spring. Corn fails to 
germinate if planted too 
early in the spring while 
the soil is still cold. 
The required temper- 
ature, however, varies 
with different seeds. The 
seeds of peas, radishes, 
and lettuce germinate 
at a lower temperature 
than corn and many 
other garden seeds. For 
most seeds, a tempera- 
ture of 75° to 90° F. is 
best. Great extremes 
between the temperature of the day and that of the night 
retard germination. With small delicate seeds extremes 
of temperature are exceedingly injurious. 

Oxygen. — Free oxygen is essential for germination. 
This element is required in the process by which the stored- 
up food in the seed is made available for the young plant. 
Seeds, if soaked in a jar of water, will enlarge and appar- 
ently start to germinate, but if kept submerged and the 
surface of the water oiled to prevent oxygen from reaching 




Fig. 113. — Sowing seeds. An even depth of 
seeds in fine, moist soil promotes good 
germination. 



GERMINATION 



205 



the seeds, they will die from lack of oxygen. Seeds planted 
in wet and poorly drained soil often fail to germinate 
because the excessive quantity of water excludes the neces- 
sary oxygen. 

Time Required for Germination. — The time required 
for germination varies greatly with the different kinds of 
seeds as well as with the conditions of temperature, moisture, 
and oxygen. Lettuce and radish seeds will germinate 
under ideal conditions in a few days, while celery seed 
requires a much longer period. Some kinds of tree seeds 
do not germinate for two or more years after they are 
placed in the ground. Therefore, in seed sowing, it is 
well to know the time required for germination that pro- 
vision may be made for such a period. 

AVERAGE TIME REQUIRED FOR COMMON SEEDS TO 
GERMINATE 



Seed 


Days 


Seed 


Days 


Bean 

Beet 

Cabbage 

Carrot 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Corn 

Cucumber 

Endive 


5-10 
7-10 
5-10 

12-18 
5-10 

10-20 
5-8 
6-10 
5-10 


Lettuce 

Onion 

Parsnip 

Pea 

Pepper 

Radish 

Salsify 

Tomato 

Turnip 


6-8 
7-10 
10-20 
6-10 
9-14 
3-6 
7-12 
6-12 
4-8 



Seed Sowing. — Knowing the essentials for germina- 
tion, one must endeavor to provide ideal conditions. 
Much of the vitality and vigor of seedlings is often lost 
by sowing seeds whose strength is spent in the effort to 



200 PROPAGATION BY SEEDS AND SPORES 

develop under unfavorable conditions. The more quickly 
the seeds germinate after being sown, the more vigorous the 
plants will be and the less trouble the cultivator will en- 
counter from weeds. Ideal moisture conditions are sup- 
plied by planting in a well-drained soil of good texture and 
containing enough humus to maintain the moisture. In 
addition the soil should be well prepared and well compacted 
about the seeds. 

In sowing seeds out of doors, the temperature is deter- 
mined largely by the season and by the depth of planting. 
As a rule, seed should be sown only as deep as moisture 
conditions require, because usually the soil at the surface 
is warmer than that lower down. Depth of sowing is 
also governed by the size of the seed as well as by its vitality. 
Large, vigorous seeds can be sown deeper than small weak 
seeds. In indoor sowing, very small seeds like begonia or 
cineraria are simply scattered over the surface of the soil. 

A sufficient supply of oxygen is assured if the seed is 
not planted too deep and if the soil does not become too 
wet or puddled. To insure an even depth of planting, the 
soil should be finely pulverized. Small weed seeds when 
plowed under in the spring probably remain dormant 
because of the lack of oxygen. 

Seed Storage. — As seeds are living plants in a dormant 
state, it is very essential to provide favorable external 
conditions for their storage. All thin-coated seeds should 
be stored in a dry place in which the temperature is 
above freezing ; while hard-shelled seeds require moisture 
and often freezing for ideal storage conditions. If the 
atmosphere in a storage room for thin-coated vegetable 
and flower seeds is damp, it should be dried by artificial 
means. Nearly all nuts and many of our common fruits 



PROPAGATION BY SPORES 207 

having hard seed coats are stored by stratifying them in 
moist sand and burying out of doors. This is called seed 
stratification. 

Seed Stratification. — To stratify seeds, a well-drained 
spot is first selected. Then the seeds are buried in layers 
alternating with sand at such a depth that they will freeze, 
but not be subject to alternating freezing and thawing. 
Small seeds may be placed in a shallow box with very fine 
sand and the box buried out of doors. Many seeds do 
not germinate the first year and by stratifying them, the 
space that they would otherwise occupy in the field is 
saved. It is only a waste of ground to sow such seeds in 
the soil the first year. Fall sowing of apples and peaches 
amounts to the same thing as stratification. It is always 
advisable to mulch with straw seeds sown at this time. 
Seeds should be stratified as soon as possible after they 
have matured. 

Propagation by Spores. — Many of the non-flowering 
plants, as ferns and mushrooms, do not produce seeds. 
Instead, small spores are formed on the under surfaces 
of the leaves. These spores differ from seeds in that they 
do not contain an embryo or young plant, but are simply 
one or few-celled structures. In the propagation of plants 
from spores, the same general conditions are necessary 
as for seeds, but moisture and drainage are of even more 
importance. Spores are extremely small and delicate, 
hence the depth of sowing is very important. They are 
usually sown in pots. The pot is filled about half full 
with broken pots or bricks and the top soil prepared ex- 
tremely fine. Over this the spores are sprinkled. The 
pot should be set in a saucer of water and covered with a 
pane of glass to maintain moisture. It should then be 



2o8 PROPAGATION BY SEEDS AND SPORES 

placed in a warm room where an even temperature can be 
maintained. The spores will germinate in three to six 
weeks. 

EXERCISES 

1. What is plant propagation ? 

2. What are the advantages of testing seeds before planting? 

3. Has your state any law regarding the amount of weed 
seeds that a given sample of seed may contain? If so, how 
much does the law allow? 

4. What is the relation of the depth of planting to the oxygen 
supply ? 

5. Explain in detail the method of stratifying seeds. 

6. How does a spore differ from a seed ? 

7. If red clover seed containing 305,000 seeds per pound is 
composed of 3 per cent weed seeds by count, how many weed 
seeds are sown in a square foot when the clover is sown at the 
rate of 10 pounds per acre ? 

8. If a seed sample contains 95 per cent of pure seed, of which 
90 per cent germinates, what per cent of the entire sample is 
viable ? 

9. Examine samples of radish, spinach, lettuce, celery, 
parsnip, carrot, cucumber, melon, and other important vege- 
table seeds at hand. Describe the form, color, size, texture, 
taste, and smell of each. 

{To the teacher: Make mixtures of these seeds and have 
students separate and identify each kind.) 

10. Make a germination test of 100 seeds each of peas, beans, 
cucumbers, cabbages, radishes, and corn. To make the germi- 
nation test, take two pieces of blotting paper and place them in 
a plate. The blotting papers should be kept soaked and the 
seeds placed between the blotting papers. The plate should be 
kept in a warm place and at an even temperature, 70° F. or over. 

Note the number of each kind germinating each day, and 



HOME PROJECTS 209 

finally estimate the percentage of germination. Tabulate your 
results in your notebook. It should be remembered that the 
so-called seed of the beet is really a seed ball, which usually 
contains more than one seed. Therefore, it is impossible to 
get an accurate test of the so-called beet seeds. 

II. Bring to school a sample of each kind of soil on your 
farm. Can you tell by the appearance of a soil whether it is 
a cold soil or a warm soil ? Is it advisable to plant early seeds 
such as radishes and lettuce, on a cold soil? Are some of 
your soils better suited to late than early crops? Test the 
relative moisture content of these samples. Can you judge 
from your sample whether or not it would provide a sufficient 
supply of oxygen to germinating seeds ? How could you improve 
this character ? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Make purity tests of any three of the following kinds 
of seeds at your farm: Kentucky blue grass, alsike clover, 
winter vetch, white clover, alfalfa, and orchard grass. Tabulate 
the results. (When results are to be tabulated, the teacher 
should suggest the appropriate form to be used.) 

2. Take a sample of 100 seeds of any three of the following 
kinds of seeds : onion, corn, celery, tobacco, tomato, clover, 
parsnip, orchard grass, and wheat. Make a germination test 
of each and tabulate results. 



AND H. PLANT PROD. I4 



CHAPTER II 



PROPAGATION BY SEPARATION, DIVISION, AND 
LAYERAGE 

Propagation by Separation. — Many plants accustomed 
to long periods of inactivity form specialized buds that 
are provided with an abundant food supply, which enables 
them to withstand adverse conditions and later to develop 
into plants. These buds break away from the parent 
plant and after being detached are able to live a separate 
existence. These specialized buds are 
classified as bulbs, bulbels, bulblets, 
corms, and cormels. Propagation by 
means of these buds is called separation. 
A Bulb is a short stem containing a 
terminal bud surrounded by thickened 
leaves called bulb scales. These thick- 
ened leaves are stored with plant food 
which maintains the plant until it is 
able to manufacture and digest its own 
bulb, showing bulb food. There are two special classes of 
bulbs : (i) the scaly bulbs, as those of 
the Easter lily (Fig. 114), made up of bulb scales that are 
narrow, thick, and loose, and (2) the laminate bulbs com- 
posed of close-fitting thin layers, as in the onion. 

Bulbs are generally formed just beneath the surface of 
the ground. Sometimes but one large bulb is produced 




CORMS AND CORMELS 



211 



by each plant, but frequently bulbs divide themselves into 
two or more equal portions, each of which may separate 
and become a complete bulb. This method, however, 
is too slow if one desires to multiply them very rapidly. 

Bulbels. — Small bulbs generally develop around the large 
"mother" bulb. These are called bulbels and may be 
separated and planted by them- 
selves. Some plants do not pro- 
duce bulbels freely, but they can 
be induced to do so by wounding 
or mutilating the " mother " 
bulb. This method of propaga- 
tion is resorted to in propagat- 
ing a large stock of a new variety. 
Bulbels may be treated as ma- 
tured bulbs although they will 
seldom flower the first year. In 
fact, most bulbels require two or 
three seasons to reach sufficient 
size to form large flowers. This 
is the method by which hyacinths 
are propagated in Holland. 

A Bulblet is a small bulb borne entirely above ground 
in the axils of the leaves as in the tiger hly, or at the top 
of a stem as in the " top " onion. 

Conns and Cormels. — Corms are produced quite simi- 
larly to bulbs but differ from them in being solid through- 
out. The food here is deposited in the thickened stem. 
Small corms or cormels are developed similarly to bulbels 
and the corm may also be mutilated in the same manner 
as bulbs to induce the formation of cormels. The crocus, 
gladiolus, and caladium are corm-producing plants. 




Fig. 115. — Corm of gladiolus with 
cormels attached. 



212 



PROPAGATION BY SEPARATION 



Propagation by Division. — Many plants are propa- 
gated by cutting or breaking the parent plant into several 
pieces. This method of propagation is known as division. 
Propagation by division is practiced principally with tu- 
bers, rootstocks, crowns, stolons, and suckers. 

A Tuber is a thickened portion of a stem that grows 
beneath the surface of the soil. The Irish potato and the 

dahlia are famihar examples. 
These plants are multiplied by 
either planting the entire tuber 
or dividing it into portions each 
of which must contain a bud 
or '' eye." 

A Rootstock is a prostrate, 
much thickened stem which 
pushes out lateral roots in all 
directions and upon which buds 
are formed. These buds when 
detached develop into new 
plants. The rootstock may be 
separated into as many parts 
as there are buds and each 
part treated as a separate plant. 
Crowns. — With some plants the rootstock during the sum- 
mer develops on each rooted branch a strong terminal bud. 
Each branch thus formed containing roots and a terminal 
bud is called a crown. This may be dug in the fall when 
the plant is dormant and divided into as many parts as 
there are crowns and each treated as an independent plant. 
Stolons are trailing branches often known as runners. 
Roots start at the nodes of the runner and thus new plants 
are produced. After the young plants are well rooted 




Fig. 1 1 6. — A new corm of caladium, 
with cormels, and the old corm at 
the base. 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERAGE 



213 



they may be separated from the parent by cutting the 
stolons. Strawberries and cranberries reproduce by means 
of stolons. 

Suckers are young plants that are produced from under- 
ground stems or roots. This method of propagation is 




Fig. 117. — Reproduction of strawberry plants by stolons. 



used in producing new plants of the red raspberry and 
blackberry. The growth of suckers may be induced by 
heavy fertihzation and severe pruning. 

Although this method of propagation is not generally 
practiced on a commercial scale with many plants, it is a 
very convenient one for private use in multiplying many 
of the flowering perennials and herbs, as well as spireas, 
deutzias, roses, and similar-growing shrubs. 

Propagation by Layerage. — Plants that do not readily take 
root from cuttings may often be conveniently propagated 
by layerage. By this method a branch is brought in con- 
tact with the earth in such a manner as to induce it to throw 
out roots and stems, thus forming a separate plant. Layer- 
ing is especially convenient for reproducing plants with 
more or less decumbent branches, and as the parent plant 
supplies the food and water until the layer is established, 
it is a simple and easy method of propagation. Plants 
that do not readily send out roots can often be induced to 



214 



rROPAGATION BY SEPARATION 



do so by bending, twisting, notching, or otherwise mutilat- 
ing that portion of the stem from which the roots are to be 
formed. In commercial practice, the grape, quince, cur- 
rant, gooseberry, and some of our ornamental plants are 
multiplied in this manner. There are several modes of 
layering plants, which differ only in the way the operation 
is performed. 

(i) Simple Layering consists in bending down a stem, 
covering with soil the portion at which the roots are desired 




Serpentine layering. 



and leaving the terminal portion uncovered. The buried 
portion should contain a node as this is the point where 
roots most readily form. 

(2) Tip Layering consists of bending the branch or cane 
down to the ground and covering the tip with soil. The 
cane or branch will throw out roots and develop a new 
plant at the covered tip. The black raspberry propagates 
naturally in this manner. 



PROPAGATION BY LAYERAGE 215 

(3) Serpentine or Multiple Layering. — When many 
plants are desired from a single stem, it is pinned to the 
ground and covered at frequent intervals, thus inducing 
the plant to form roots at more than one point. After 
the roots have formed, the vine may be cut between these 
points, leaving a number of independent plants. The 
grape and many ornamental vines are readily propagated 
by this method. 

(4) Mound Layering is another method of obtaining 
many plants from a single individual. This is performed 
by cutting back the old plant to the ground early in the 
spring to stimulate the formation of many new shoots. 
The succeeding fall or spring the soil is ridged up about 
the plants high enough to cover the lower nodes of the 
new branches. From these nodes roots are formed which 
are sufhciently strong to be separated from the parent 
plant the following fall. The gooseberry, quince, and 
many of the ornamental shrubs may be propagated in 
this manner. 

(5) Air Layering. — Sometimes it is impossible to bring 
a branch in contact with the ground. In such a case, soil 
or moss is placed around the branch and held in position 
by some artificial means. If this covering is kept moist, 
roots will develop and a new plant will form. The rubber 
plant so common in our homes may be multiplied in this 
manner. 

EXERCISES 

1 . What is propagation by separation ? 

2. What is the difference between a corm and a bulb? Are 
they propagated in the same manner ? 

3. What is a rootstock? How can you tell an underground 



2i6 PROPAGATION BY SEPARATION 

stem from a root? Dig up the underground parts of a speci- 
men of quack grass. Note the rootstock. 

4. Draw both cross and longitudinal sections of an onion 
(bulb) and a crocus (corm) and label properly. 

5. Study a young strawberry plant. How are these plants 
propagated? Notice the runner which joined the young plant 
to the old plant and also the runner which the young plant is 
sending out. Is there a bud at the end of the young runner? 
Is it a leaf or fruit bud? 

6. What two causes are the most potent ones in causing 
plants and trees to sucker? 

HOME PROJECT 

Select two kinds of hardy shrubs, two kinds of ornamental 
vines, and three kinds of fruits that may be readily propagated 
by layerage. Grow five new plants of each, using the following 
methods of propagation: simple layering, tip layering, serpen- 
tine layering, and mound layering. Separate and plant in suit- 
able places. 



CHAPTER III 
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 

A CUTTING is a detached portion of a stem which, when 
inserted in sand, soil, water, or some other favorable 
medium, will produce roots. It is not a natural means of 
multipHcation, but is used to propagate plants that do not 
come true to seed, or those that do not propagate more 
readily in some other manner. Nearly all plants may be 
propagated by cuttings, but some species and even some 
varieties of the same species may be multiplied more 
readily than others by this means. 

That a cutting may develop a new plant, it must possess 
the following essentials : (i) a certain amount of healthy 
tissue, (2) stored food, and (3) a growing point. The 
portions of the plant selected for cuttings are, therefore, 
the younger matured growths of the roots or stems con- 
taining one or more buds. 

External Requirements. — In order that cuttings may 
callus and send out roots readily, certain external condi- 
tions must be supphed and maintained. The principal 
conditions are temperature, moisture, and soil. 

Temperature. — It is important that the temperature 
be carefully controlled. Heat stimulates plant growth, 
hence in the propagation of plants by cuttings, it is es- 
pecially desirable to supply bottom heat that the soil may 
be warmer than the air. This tends to stimulate the forma- 
tion of roots, and checks the growth of the foliage until 

217 



2i8 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 

roots are formed to supply food and moisture. Many 
plants will not root at all without bottom heat. This is 
suppKed out of doors by the natural heat of the soil in the 
spring and summer, and for some plants, this is often 
sufficient. With others, however, it is necessary to raise 
the temperature of the soil by artificial means. In green- 
house work the soil of the cutting bench is heated by steam 
or hot-water pipes placed beneath it. Hotbeds are often 
used, the heat of the soil being raised by the fermenting 
manure placed below the soil. Frequently cuttings are 
buried inverted with their bases nearest the surface of the 
soil. This tends to hold the buds in check and accelerates 
the rooting. If placed out of doors in the fall or early 
spring, the ends should be callused and ready for planting 
by May or early June. 

The air temperature is also important. It is desirable 
and often necessary to check the growth of tops until the 
roots have formed. A cutting suppHed with warm air soon 
exhausts the meager amount of food stored in its leaves, 
and as it cannot well take in moisture until the root hairs 
have developed, it may wilt and die. It is, therefore, 
necessary to maintain a low air temperature. In practice 
this is accomplished by means of shading and ventilation, 
or by burying cuttings in an inverted position as has been 
described. 

Uniformity in temperature is very important. The 
variations between day and night temperatures are not 
conducive to the most favorable development of cuttings. 
Under most conditions a soil temperature of 65° F. and an 
air temperature of 50° to 55° F. is ideal. Frequently, 
however, the temperature of the soil may be raised some- 
what higher to hasten the development of roots. 



EXTERNAL REQUIREMENTS 219 

Moisture. — Moisture is essential to prevent wilting 
and to promote root development. It is furnished to the 
plant by means of frequent waterings and maintained by 
shading to reduce transpiration. With plants having a 
large leaf surface, it is especially important that the air 
be kept in a moist condition. • 

Various devices are used for confining the air about 
cuttings to prevent excessive evaporation. A bell jar is 
probably the simplest 
method. A very prac- H 

tical device for the home ^ 1 

consists of a box covered ? ' 

with a pane of glass. 
In greenhouse work, the 
cutting bench is covered 
with sash when the re- 
quired moisture cannot 
be easily maintained by 
other means. Gener- 
ally, however, frequent 
watering and shading by 
means of whitewashing 
the glass of the green- 
house or by placing lath 
screens above is suffi- 
cient to prevent eXCeS- Hg. 119. — Plant growing under a bell jar 

sive transpiration. *° ^^^'^"^ ^"'^^^^^^^ evaporation. 

Soil. — The medium in which the cutting is placed for 
rooting is as important as the temperature and moisture con- 
ditions. Some plants may be rooted by placing the cuttings 
in water. Others may be rooted by placing them in moist 
sphagnum moss ; but as a rule, soil is most satisfactory. 




2 20 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 

An ideal soil for cuttings should be of such a texture as 
to become neither puddled nor baked. Since drainage is 
of so much importance, coarse, clean sand that is free 
from clay and organic matter is to be preferred for green- 
wood cuttings. Fine sand packs too firmly about the 
cutting, while organic matter in the soil holds too much 
moisture and promotes the growth of injurious plant dis- 
eases. Coarse sand also induces the formation of longer 
and better roots. For some of the hardwood cuttings 
planted out of doors, a good garden soil of a hght mellow 
character is preferred. All cuttings except the willow, 
dogwood, poplar, and other plants thriving naturally in 
wet soils prefer good drainage. 

Classes of Cuttings. — Cuttings are divided into four 
classes with reference to the parts of the plant from which 
they are taken. These are tuber cuttings, root cuttings, 
leaf cuttings, and stem cuttings. 

Tuber Cuttings. — Plants forming tubers are generally 
multiplied by tuber cuttings. The essentials of a tuber 



( •! ■ ;^ ^_ Jul ■' '%m 

Fig. 120. — Tuber cuttings of Irish potatoes ready for planting. 

cutting are a bud or eye and a sufficient piece of the tuber 
attached to produce growth. The roots of a tuber cutting 
come from the base of the sprout produced, and by re- 
moving these sprouts as soon as they form roots and leaves 
new plants are obtained. In this manner, a large number 



ROOT AND LEAF CUTTINGS 



221 



may be produced from a single tuber. Sweet potatoes are 
propagated in this manner. Irish potatoes are propagated 
usually by using the whole tuber or a portion of it contain- 
ing one or more eyes. Many experiments have been per- 
formed to ascertain the ideal size to plant for seed to obtain 
the maximum yield. In most cases, the larger pieces have 
given the greater yields, and good-sized potatoes cut in 
halves have yielded more than small potatoes similarly 
cut, and more than larger ones cut into many pieces. 

Root Cuttings. — Of the plants commercially propagated 
by root cuttings, the horse-radish and blackberry are 
familiar examples. The smaller roots 
are cut into pieces one to four inches 
long as soon as the growth ceases in 
the fall, and are packed in boxes with 
moist sand or moss. They are then 
placed in a cool cellar for the winter 
and planted out of doors in the spring. 
It is di£&cult to tell the base from the 
top of horse-radish cuttings, and as 
it is necessary to plant them in an 
upright position in the soil to obtain 
good straight roots, the cuttings 
are made with a diagonal cut at 
the bottom and a horizontal cut 
across the top. Blackberry cuttings 
may be planted horizontally in the 
soil. 

Leaf Cuttings. — Plants, like the 
begonias, having thick fleshy leaves, 
store large quantities of plant food either in the body 
of the leaf or in its larger ribs. When these ribs are 




Fig. 121. — A rooted leaf 
cutting of Rex Begonia, 
showing formation of new 
plant. 



2 22 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 

ruptured and placed in contact with moist sand, they 
readily develop stems and roots. With such plants, the 
following method of propagation is practiced. The leaf 
may be spread upon a cutting bench and pinned down with 
toothpicks thrust through the ribs, or the ribs may be cut 
slightly, and the leaf held in close contact with the surface 
of the sand by means of hght weights placed on top of the 
leaf. From the wounds, roots develop, and the plant after- 
wards produces leaves. 

Leaves may also be cut into small wedge-shaped pieces, 
each piece containing a portion of a midrib. These pieces 
may be set vertically in the sand like ordinary cuttings, 
and roots will develop from the point of the midrib. In 
selecting leaves for cuttings, vigorous, healthy, well- 
matured ones should be used. Leaf cuttings are handled 
in the same manner as softwood cuttings, in so far as temper- 
ature and moisture are concerned. 

Stem Cuttings. — One of the most common methods of 
propagation is by stem cuttings. From some plants, the 
cuttings are taken when the wood is matured ; cuttings 
thus taken are called hardwood cuttings. From other 
plants they are taken from the growing immature stems, 
and are called softwood cuttings. As the treatment for 
each is quite different, it is necessary to consider them 
separately. 

Hardwood Cuttings are made any time after the stems 
have dropped their leaves in the fall, and before the buds 
start in the spring. The wood at this time is matured 
and quite dormant. Hardwood cuttings generally require 
a long time to root, therefore it is advisable to make them 
in the fall or early winter in order to allow them time to 
callus before spring. 



HARDWOOD CUTTINGS 



223 



If bottom heat is to be supplied to the soil in which the 
cuttings are placed, they will be found to do better if given 
a rest before starting their growth. 

Often hardwood cuttings are taken in the early fall and 
planted directly in the field. Currants, gooseberries, and 





Fig. 122. — Hardwood cuttings: (a) simple cutting; (b) heel cutting; (c) mallet cut- 
ting; {d) one-eye cutting. 

sometimes grapes are propagated in this way. There is 
no rule governing the length of a hardwood cutting although 
they are generally made from eight to ten inches long. 
The cutting should contain one or more buds below the 
ground and one above. 

The various kinds of hardwood cuttings may be classified 
as follows: (i) simple, (2) heel, (3) mallet, and (4) one- 
eye cuttings. 

(i) A Simple Cutting consists of a portion of a stem having 
two or more buds. The base of the cutting is generally 



2 24 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINCxS 

made just below a node, as roots seem to form more readily 
at this point. The top is cut some distance above the 
highest bud. Usually the stem is of the present or past 
season's growth rather than of older wood, although with 
some plants the base is often cut at the annual ring just 
below the past season's growth. This method of making 
cuttings is used with currants, gooseberries, grapes, dog- 
woods, willows, poplars, and many of the ornamental 
shrubs and trees. 

(2) A Heel Cutting is made like a simple cutting, but 
with a small portion of the parent branch forming a heel 
at its base. Some stems root most readily when cut in 
this manner. 

(3) A Mallet Cutting is formed when an entire section 
of the parent branch is removed instead of a heel. Often 
plants that will not take root by simple cuttings are easily 
propagated by this form. Many evergreens and some 
deciduous trees root more readily from mallet and heel 
cuttings than from the other cuttings. 

(4) One-eye Cuttings may be used when a large stock 
of cuttings is desired from few plants. These consist of 
stem cuttings having but one bud, the stem being cut a 
short distance below and above a bud. These cuttings 
often require artificial heat to stimulate their callusing. 
If made in the fall, the cuttings may be layered in a box of 
sand and placed in a cool greenhouse over winter. In 
planting out in the spring, they should be placed hori- 
zontally about an inch below the surface of a moist and 
finely prepared soil. As such plants are not so strong as 
those from two-eye or three-eye cuttings, greater care is 
necessary in planting. It is not advisable to use them 
except when more vigorous cuttings are unavailable. 



SOFTWOOD CUTTINGS 



225 



Softwood Cuttings may be used in the propagation of 
nearly all greenhouse plants. For this purpose, wood that 
is neither too soft nor too hard should be selected. Firm 
and brittle stems root most readily. In propagating 
herbaceous plants by softwood cuttings, the tips of the 
rapid growing shoots are selected. Such cuttings may 
vary in leng^th from an inch to three or four inches with 




Fig. 123. — Softwood cuttings. A geranium plant and shoot taken from it for a cutting. 
The one held in the hand is ready for planting. Carnation cuttings in the back- 
ground. 

different plants. Although the base of a cutting is gener- 
ally cut below the node, it is not always necessary to 
do so, especially with herbaceous cuttings that root very 
readily. The leaves are generally removed from the 
lower portion of the stem and the cutting planted deep 
enough to hold it in place and insure uniform temperature 
and moisture. Sometimes a portion of the remaining 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. I 5 



2 26 PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS 

leaf surface is cut off to reduce transpiration and prevent 
wilting. 

The cuttings are then placed in sharp sand in a cutting 
bench or propagating box. As the cuttings should never 
be permitted to wilt, it is well to water them immediately 
after planting and to shade them with newspapers. 

Cuttings of many of our ornamental shrubs and vines 
are made during the summer months from the partially 
matured growths and placed in outdoor frames. These 
should be given protection during the first winter but after- 
wards may be treated the same as plants from hardwood 
cuttings. 

EXERCISES 

1. Give in detail the three essentials of a good cutting. How 
would you proceed to determine whether a cutting is of strong 
or weak vitality ? 

2. What are the external requirements of cuttings? Why 
apply bottom heat ? Suggest three methods of applying bottom 
heat to herbaceous plants. 

3. Make samples of simple, heel, mallet, and one-eye cut- 
tings of the grape or some other woody vine. 

4. Obtain specimens of cactus, begonia, peperomia, or other 
thick-leaved plants and examine, noting spines, mode of pro- 
tection from outside, and thickness of leaf. Make three out- 
line drawings of the leaf and show by dotted Unes where the leaf 
should be cut to propagate it by the many different methods 
of making leaf cuttings. 

HOME PROJECTS 

I. Plant two rows each of large whole potatoes, medium- 
sized whole potatoes, small whole potatoes, medium-sized seed 
halved, medium-sized seed quartered, medium-sized seed cut to 



HOME PROJECTS 227 

three eyes, medium-sized seed cut to two eyes, and medium-sized 
seed cut to one eye. Label each row. Tabulate results. 

{To the teacher: This work should extend through one 
season and the student should be given credit for thorough- 
ness and completeness of work done.) 

2. Make several hardwood cuttings of each of the following 
plants : currant, gooseberry, grape, rose, barberry, spiraea, 
deutzia, lilac, philadelphus, willow, dogwood, poplar. Tie 
in separate bundles, label, and pack in a moist cool place. Handle 
and plant in the spring as outlined in the text. 



CHAPTER IV 
GRAFTING 

Grafting is the process of inserting a stem or bud of one 
plant into another plant in such a manner that the two 
unite and grow. The portion of the plant to which the 
graft is appKed is called the stock and the piece inserted 
in the stock is called the scion. The stock furnishes the 
nourishment and the future growth develops from the 
scion. 

The cambium layer is the living tissue between the wood 
and the bark. In all kinds of grafting, it is essential that 
the cambium of the stock and scion touch each other. 
When the graft is made, the wounded cambium of both 
scion and stock begins to produce a new tissue known as 
the callus. The two parts, being maintained in rigid 
contact, grow together making a permanent union. 

Functions of Grafting. — (i) Grafting is used to multiply 
varieties that will not come true from seed. The seeds of 
most of our tree fruits produce plants that bear fruits un- 
like the parents and generally of inferior quahty. Seeds 
of the Baldwin apple or of the Bartlett pear do not produce 
trees of these varieties. Hence, to produce a tree of similar 
characteristics, it is essential to propagate by grafting. 
All the common tree fruits of America and many of the 
ornamental shrubs and trees are propagated by this means. 
The principal function of grafting, therefore, is to per- 
petuate varieties. 

228 



LIMITATIONS OF GRAFTING 229 

(2) Grafting is also used to change the natural habit of 
growth or stature of a tree. Apples are grafted upon 
slow-growing sorts that tend to produce a slower growth 
of the scion. For the same reason, pears are grafted 
upon quince. Weeping willows and mulberries are often 
grafted upon stocks producing straight upright trunks, 
thus forming umbrella-shaped trees. In these as well as 
in other ways, grafting is used to change the stature of a 
plant. 

(3) Grafting is used to adapt varieties to soil conditions. 
Plants are frequently grafted upon stocks that thrive better 
upon the soil that is to be used to grow them. Plums 
thrive best upon a moderately heavy soil while peaches 
prefer a sandy soil. In growing peaches, therefore, upon 
a heavy soil they are often grafted upon plum, stocks, and 
plums to be grown upon sandy soil may be grafted upon 
peach stocks. 

(4) Grafting is also used to change an undesirable va- 
riety to a desirable one. When a tree comes into bearing 
it may be found to be of an undesirable sort. As it takes 
ten years for most of our apples to come into bearing, one 
can hardly afford to destroy a tree and wait for a new one 
to come into fruit. Upon the branches of the undesirable 
tree may be grafted the scions of a desirable variety, and 
in a few years the tree will produce abundant crops of the 
desired variety. 

Limitations of Grafting. — Probably all plants which 
contain a distinct bark and wood can be grafted. There 
is no definite rule, however, and the only method of deter- 
mining the affinity between two kinds of plants is by trial. 
Under ordinary conditions, however, the following results 
are obtained. 



230 GRAFTING 

(i) Different varieties of the same species almost always 
unite. The Northern Spy apple may be grafted upon the 
Baldwin apple although the Bartlett pear does not take 
so well upon the Kieffer pear. In the former case the 
fruits are of the same species while in the latter they are of 
different species. 

(2) Plants of different species but of the same genus often 
unite. Peaches, for example, may be grafted upon plums, 
or plums upon peaches. Sometimes a graft may be worked 
one way successfully, but it may fail to unite in the op- 
posite way. The sweet cherry will grow upon a Mahaleb 
stock, but the Mahaleb will not grow upon the sweet cherry 
stock. 

(3) Plants of different genera but of the same family 
sometimes unite. The pear, for example, unites success- 
fully upon the thorn, and the oak upon the chestnut ; in 
fact, the pear grafts more successfully on the thorn than 
upon other pears. Generally, however, plants do not 
unite as successfully when of different genera as when the 
botanical relationship is closer. 

Kinds of Grafting. — The three principal kinds of graft- 
ing are budding, scion grafting, and inarching or approach 
grafting. 

Budding. — Budding is really the grafting of a small 
portion of bark containing a living bud. It is used with 
stock of small diameter and preferably not more than one 
year old. There is no definite rule, however, as to which 
plants should be budded in preference to scion grafting. 
Many plants, as the apple and pear, are propagated both 
ways, depending much upon local conditions. Budding is 
the only method extensively used, however, in propagating 
all stone fruits such as the peaches, plums, and cherries. 



CUTTING BUDS 231 

Budding is usually performed in the North during late 
summer and early fall, while in the South it is frequently 
performed in June. It may be done at any time of the 
year when mature buds can be obtained and the bark 
slips readily. When spring budding is practiced 
in the North, the buds are secured from twigs 
of the previous season's growth ; but with late 
summer work, the buds are secured from grow- 
ing twigs of the present season. 

Selecting Buds. — Twigs from which the buds 
are selected are known as bud sticks. Strong 
twigs of the present season's growth are selected 
for bud sticks. As these twigs are usually cut 
while still in foliage, it is necessary to keep them 
from wilting. Usually the leaves are clipped at 
once to lessen the transpiration of moisture. IV/ ) 

About half an inch of the petiole of the leaf 
beneath each bud is left on to serve as a handle 
while inserting the bud. The weak buds at the 
tips of the branches are generally discarded 
unless the number is limited, as sometimes 
happens in propagating new varieties. The bud 
sticks should be wrapped in moist cloth as soon 
as cut and kept in a cool place until ready for 
use. 

Cutting Buds. — From a bud stick, a bud with Fig. 124. — a 

rii- 'ir r i-ii ^"^ stick 

a piece of bark is cut out in the form of a shield showing 

method of 

about an inch long. The cut should be deep cutting the 
enough to remove but a small portion of wood 
that is cut away with the bud. Some grafters prefer to 
remove this wood before inserting the bud in the stock 
while others do not. If the bud has been cut very deep, 



232 



GRAFTING 



however, or if the wood is hard and dry, it is better to 
remove it. 

Inserting Buds in Stock. — The stock is prepared by 
removing all the leaves and branches from the area to 
be budded. Peaches, plums, and other nursery trees 
are generally budded as near to the ground as the 
operator can work, or not more than two or three inches 
above the surface of the soil. The bud is usually set on 

the north side of the stock 
that it may be shaded 
from the sun and kept 
cool and moist. A bud- 
ding knife having a thin 
blade curved at the end 
(Fig. 125) is used to make 
the incision, which con- 
sists of a vertical slit 
about an inch long and 
just deep enough to cut 
through the inner bark, 
and also a horizontal cut 
made across the top of 
this vertical cut, forming the capital letter " T." (Fig. 
126 a.) The bark is then loosened to receive the bud. 
(Fig. 126 b.) The bud is inserted and pushed in under 
the bark as far as possible with the finger ; then the back 
of the knife blade is thrust against the petiole of the 
leaf, and the bud is pushed into its final position. (Fig. 
126 c.) If a small portion of the bark is still above the 
incision, it may be cut away without harm. The bud is 
then tied with rafifia, soft string, or tape, by winding it 
around once or twice both below and above the bud. 




Fig. 125. — Cutting a bud with a budding knife. 



SPLICE GRAFTING 



233 



(Fig. 126 d.) This is left for one or two weeks during 
which time the bud sets. The tape is then cut to prevent 
girdling. 

A bud inserted in late summer remains dormant until 
the following spring. After it begins to grow in the spring, 
the stock should be cut just above the bud that the growth 
of the bud may be accelerated and the wound quickly 
healed over. (Fig. 126 e.) All suckers and water sprouts 
should be kept pruned off. 

Splice Grafting. — Splice grafting is a form of scion 
grafting used to unite small scions and stocks of nearly the 




Fig. 126. — Steps in the process of budding. 



same size. The base of the scion is trimmed with an even 
diagonal cut and the stock is cut in a similar manner. The 
two are then placed together so that the cambium layer 
of one is in contact with the cambium layer of the other, 
at least along one side of the union, and the graft is bound 
tightly with soft string, waxed cloth, or grafting cord to 
hold the two parts in place. This is the simplest graft to 
make but it does not hold so well as some other forms. 



234 



GRAFTING 



Tongue Grafting. — This method is the same as splice 
grafting except that a vertical cut is made along the diagonal 
cut in both stock and scion to form a tongue. When the 
tongues are inserted or pushed together they not only 
expose more of the cambium but also exert a binding force 
and a better union is insured. The graft should be wound 

with waxed cloth or cord 
as in the splice graft. 
This method is univer- 
sally used in root graft- 
ing. Seedling stocks with 
long straight taproots 
are desirable for this 
purpose. In whole root 
grafting, the entire root 
is used with each scion. 
Ir piece root grafting 
each root is cut into two 
or more pieces. 

Root grafting is used 
to propagate many of 
the apples, pears, and 
other pomaceous fruits. 
This form of grafting has 
an advantage over bud- 
ding in that it is usually done indoors during the winter, 
while budding must be performed during the growing season. 
Both scions and roots are collected in the late fall and 
stored in sand, sawdust, or moss, in a cool place. About 
January or February the stock is grafted. The complete 
grafts are wrapped tightly with waxed string or cloth and 
stored in a cool, moist place until spring. Callusing will 




S 



127. — Tongue grafting: (</) the scion; 
the stock; (r) stock and scion united; 
graft wrapped. 



CLEFT GRAFTING 



235 



have taken place by that time, and when planted in the 
nursery row the scions will start to grow. 

Cleft Grafting. — When branches of from one to two 
inches in diameter are grafted, the cleft graft is the method 
commonly used. This consists simply in cutting off the 
branch at right angles and with a grafting chisel making 
a cleft deep enough 
to accommodate the 
scions. For this pur- 
pose the scions are 
collected during the 
late fall or early winter, 
although success is fre- 
quently obtained with 
scions cut at the time 
of grafting. The twigs 
selected should be 
about eight to ten 
inches long, of the past 
season's growth. They 
are then generally cut 
into pieces each con- 
taining two or three 
buds. The base of a 
scion is trimmed to 
form a wedge, about 
one and a half inches long. The outer edge of the wedge 
is made sHghtly thicker so that the pressure of the stock 
against it on this side may bring the cambium layers in 
close contact. It is also desirable to have a bud on the 
outside of the scion just above the wedge. The scions 
are then inserted into the cleft in such a manner that the 




Fig. 128. — Bridge grafting. When the bark of fruit 
trees has been injured by mice or rabbits the 
trees may often be saved by this method of 
grafting. 



236 



GRAFTING 



cambium layer on the outer side of the scion may be 
in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. That 
the cambium surfaces may be brought into direct contact, 
at least at one point, the scions are generally slanted 
shghtly outward. Two scions are placed in each cleft to 
insure success, and if each grows, the weaker one is after- 
wards removed. 

Cleft grafting is extensively used in top-working trees. 
A most important factor in this process consists in the 




Fig. 129. 



Cleft grafting: (a) scion; (b) scions inserted in cleft; (c) cleft graft waxed; 
(d) cross section of stock and scions. 



selection of the branches to form the top. Scions when 
grafted always grow upward regardless of the former 
direction of the stock. This tends to produce a narrow, 
high-topped tree. Great care should be exercised, there- 
fore, to select branches well away from the trunk and 
covering all the fruit-bearing surface. In top- working a 
matured tree, it will be necessary to graft a large number 
of branches, but only about one third of these should be 
worked in a single season. It takes from three to five years 



INARCHING OR APPROACH GRAFTING 



237 



to renew the entire top of a large tree. All the important 
branches should be grafted if the original fruit-bearing sur- 
face is to be maintained. This work is performed about the 
time the trees are ordinarily pruned in the spring, and just be- 
fore growth starts. After the grafts are inserted in the cleft. 
all the exposed surface of 
the stock and tips of the 
scions are coated with 
grafting wax to keep the 
scions moist and to pre- 
vent decay. 

Inarching or Approach 
Grafting. — There are 
many plants that cannot 
be successfully grafted 
by any of the previous 
methods. Such plants 
can be more conveniently 
propagated by inarching. 
With this method, each 
plant remains attached 
to its own roots and the 

scion is detached only Fig-ao- - Top grafting a young apple tree. 

after the graft has united. To practice inarching, the 
plants must be grown near together or in pots, that it may 
be possible to bring them together and to unite the stock 
and scion without detaching them from the plants. The 
cambium layer of each may be exposed by any cut that 
will enable the two to come into direct contact when tied. 
In some plants a tongue is cut along the side of the stem 
of each ; in others, as herbaceous plants, the outer bark 
is simply scraped to expose the cambium. It is important 









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a/'^%^ 




/ 


m^^ 




A 


^^^WP 


Bi 


■4 


i ^ ^ 


Ik. 


,,f 


^y 




•A 



8 GRAFTING 



that the two plants be tied in such a manner as to hold them 
perfectly rigid until the union is complete. Raffia or soft 
string is generally used for tying herbaceous grafts, and 
they are covered with sphagnum moss to keep them moist. 
The grafts of trees and shrubs are sometimes waxed. 
After the two plants have united the stock above the union 
may be pruned off and the plant originally producing the 
scion may be cut below the union. Potatoes may be 
grafted upon tomatoes by this method, and many green- 
house plants may be similarly propagated. 

EXERCISES 

1. Go out into an old orchard and dig away the soil from 
the trunks of the apple trees until the place where the root 
graft was made is disclosed to view. Note if there are any 
places where the wound did not heal and thus allowed the 
entry of disease-producing fungi. This will be shown by a 
decayed area. 

2. Explain in detail the method of growing a Baldwin apple 
tree from unknown seed. 

3. Make grafting wax according to the following directions: 
Weigh out I part by weight of tallow, 2 parts of beeswax, and 
4 parts of resin. Pulverize the resin, cut up the beeswax and 
tallow and boil together slowly until all is entirely dissolved. 
Pour the mass into a pail of cold water and after greasing the 
hands, squeeze out all the water and pull like molasses candy 
until the wax becomes Hght colored. Be careful not to pour 
the hot mass into the water too quickly. The wax should be 
pulled until it is cool and then rolled into lengths and wrapped 
in paraffin paper until the next laboratory period. Grafting 
cord for binding grafts may be prepared by putting a ball of 
No. 18 knitting cotton into a kettle of melted grafting wax and 
allowing it to become thoroughly saturated. 



HOME PROJECT 239 

4. Visit an apple orchard and collect twenty-live scions. 
Tie them into a bundle, and label with name of the variety, 
the date, and the collector's name. Pack away in a cool place 
in damp sand. 

5. Collect the same number of bud sticks from peach trees. 
Label and store as in previous exercise. 

6. The teacher should collect a number of willow sticks 
three eighths to half an inch in diameter sometime previous to 
this exercise and place them in a pail of water in a warm room 
to have them in such condition that the bark will slip readily 
for budding. With the peach bud sticks of the previous exer- 
cise at hand and the willow sticks as stocks the students should 
perform the operation of budding, learning the proper method 
of cutting the buds, making the incision, inserting the bud, 
and tying the same. 

7. Collect a number of pieces of apple limbs one and a hah* 
to two inches thick and a foot or more long. Using these as 
stocks and with the apple scions previously collected each 
student should perform the operation of cleft grafting, until 
each becomes proficient. 

8. Visit a neighboring orchard and select the branches that 
should be grafted in top- working the trees. Perform the work 
if possible. 

HOME PROJECT 

Plant about a hundred peach, apple, or plum seeds in the 
spring, and bud them at the proper time with standard varie- 
ties. Keep an accurate record in notebook of the date, method, 
and time spent in performing each detail of the work. Also 
note the time of sprouting after seeding, the number of seedling 
trees, and the number of buds successfully grafted. 



CHAPTER V 

FRUIT GROWING 

Fruits are grown in nearly all parts of the United States. 
In many regions where the conditions of soil and climate 
are especially suitable, fruit growing has developed into a 
leading agricultural industry. Since some fruits may be 
grown successfully on nearly every farm, each farmer 
should possess the requisite knowledge and skill to pro- 
duce enough first-class fruit for the table. 

Selecting a Site. — In all fruit-growing regions and on 
nearly all farms there are certain sites best adapted to 
fruit growing. Most fruits demand a sloping site to give 
good soil and air drainage. Fruit trees will not thrive on 
poorly drained soil. A slope of four to five feet per hun- 
•dred is generally sufficient. Air drainage is as important 
as soil drainage. Cold air is heavier than warm air and 
settles in the low spots ; hence such places are more likely 
to be visited by the late spring frosts when the trees are 
-in bloom, kilHng the blossoms and spoiUng the crop. Sites 
that are too steep are also objectionable as it is incon- 
venient to cultivate, spray, and otherwise care for trees 
on very steep land. 

The exposure of a site should also be considered. Fruits 
growing on a southern slope blossom early, while those 
on a northern slope, which is generally cooler and more 
moist, blossom later. In growing early crops where there 

240 



PLANNING THE FRUIT GARDEN 241 

is little danger of late spring frosts, a southern slope is 
to be preferred, but in growing late varieties of fruits or 
those that require coolness and moisture, a northern exposure 
should be selected. Where the prevailing winds are from 
the west an eastern exposure is desirable, especially for such 
fruits as apples that drop their crop during severe wind 
storms. If the site is adjacent to a large body of water, 
the moderating influence would be most marked on the 
slope toward the water. There is no best exposure. Each 
grower should select a site that meets the requirements 
of the fruit he intends to grow under his local conditions. 

The soil is also an important consideration in selecting 
a site. The essentials of an ideal soil for fruit production 
are good drainage, good texture, and a sufficient amount of 
plant food. Certain soils are better adapted to certain 
kinds of fruits than others. Apples prefer a medium clay 
loam while pears do especially well on a heavy clay loam ; 
peaches and most other stone fruits, except plums, prefer 
a lighter soil ; while the quince and most of the bush fruits 
do better on a medium heavy, cool, moist loam. Straw- 
berries and grapes thrive best on a rather Hght soil. Fruits 
come into bearing earher on Hght soils, but the trees are 
apt to be short-lived. On heavier soils, the trees usually 
grow larger and live longer. In the home fruit garden, 
however, almost any kind of fruit can be grown by observ- 
ing good culture and tillage practices. 

Planning the Fruit Garden. — In planning the fruit 
garden, it is advisable to draw a plan to a definite scale 
showing the relative arrangement of the fruits, the number 
of each to be grown, and the distance apart that they are 
to be planted. This not only serves as a guide at planting 
time, but also furnishes a permanent record of the position 

il. AND H. PLANT PROD. — l6 



242 FRUIT GROWING 

and variety of each tree and permits the placing of the 
various fruits so as to secure the greatest economy of space. 

For general market purposes, it is best to select few kinds 
with a sufficient number of each kind to market success- 
fully, while- in growing fruit for home use only a small 
number of each is required. 

In arranging fruits in a garden, it is best to plant each 
kind by itself. When tree fruits are interplanted with 
small fruits, the cost of caring for them is increased. Pear 
trees are sometimes planted between apple trees, but it is 
often desirable to cultivate the apples when it may be 
inadvisable to cultivate the pears. Interplanting is often 
practiced in order to get quick returns from the orchard. 
Strawberries are often interplanted between tree fruits; 
thus the land produces returns the second year. Farm 
crops are often grown between the rows. Under such 
conditions, it is essential to provide a sufficient amount of 
fertilizer for both crops, otherwise this practice will stunt 
the trees. When intercropping is practiced, it is best to 
use some cultivated crop that the soil moisture may be 
preserved. Wheat, oats, and any of the grass crops are 
to be avoided. 

Square System. — There are various systems of arrang- 
ing trees in the orchard. The square system is the most 
common. In this the trees are planted in rows an equal 
distance apart each way and so placed as to be in align- 
ment with the trees of the adjoining rows. This is the 
easiest system to lay out, and is a very convenient one to 
care for. Since two trees diagonally across from each 
other in a square are a greater distance apart than the 
ones on the same side of the square, it is evident that 
this system does not utilize space economically and does 



DISTANCES BETWEEN TREES 243 

not permit the planting of as many trees per acre as other 
systems. 

Alternate System. — In this system, the hrst row of 
trees is planted as in the square system, but the trees 
of the adjacent row alternate with those of the first 
row. By this system, although the trees are not equal 
distances apart, the space is more evenly divided, but the 
trees do not line up both ways as in the square system. 

The Hexagonal or Triangular System permits the plant- 
ing of more trees per acre than the other systems and 






Fig. 131. — Square, alternate, and hexagonal planting plans for orchards. 

equalizes the space to the best advantage. In this system 
each tree occupies a corner of an equilateral triangle. 

Distances between Trees. — The distances apart that 
fruits should be planted depend upon the kind, variety, 
soil, locaHty, and system of culture to be followed. Apple 
trees grow larger than peach trees and hence must be 
given more space, if large, spreading, well-formed trees 
are desired. There is also often a great difference in the 
growing habits of different varieties of the same kind of 
fruit, as may be seen in comparing the Baldwin apple tree 
with the Wagener. The former develops to a large size, 
while the latter is a small-growing variety. Upon light 



244 FRUIT GROWING 

soil, trees seldom grow so large as upon strong soil, hence 
in some sections the same varieties are more vigorous 
in growing than in others. The systems of pruning, train- 
ing, fertihzing, and cultivating that are to be practiced all 
influence the distance of planting. 

The usual distances apart for planting fruits are as 
follows : 

Apples 25 to 4p feet each way- 
Pears 20 to 30 feet each way 

Plums 16 to 25 feet each way 

Peaches 16 to 25 feet each way 

Cherries, sour 16 to 25 feet each way 

Apricots 16 to 20 feet each way 

Quinces 8 to 14 feet each way 

Grapes 8 to 12 feet each way 

Currants 4X6 feet 

Gooseberries 4X5 feet 

Raspberries, black .... 3X6 feet 

Raspberries, red 3X5 feet 

Blackberries 4X7 to 6x8 feet 

Strawberries i-J X 3 or 4 feet 

Selecting Varieties. — Since much of the fruit grower's 
success depends upon the quality and quantity of fruit 
he produces, his most important consideration is that of 
varieties. The most common mistake made in planting 
commercial orchards is that of selecting too many varie- 
ties. An orchard consisting of many varieties proves of 
little commercial value as there is not enough of any one 
kind to market with profit. 

Many growers make the mistake of planting varieties 
not adapted to the locality. Some of our best varieties 
of apples are grown successfully only in certain localities. 



SELECTING VARIETIES 245 

while others are able to adapt themselves to a wide range 
of conditions. The Baldwin apple, the Bartlett pear, the 
Lombard plum, and the Elberta peach are cosmopolitan 
varieties ; while the Spitzenburg apple, the Kalamazoo 
peach, the Bosc pear, and the Satsuma plum are examples 
of the other type. One of the best ways of learning the 




Fig. 132. — Heeling-in young trees. 

varieties adapted to a particular region is to visit neigh- 
boring orchards during the harvest season, and note the 
varieties producing the best crops. 

New varieties are not desirable in commercial orchards. 
Standard varieties are well known and need little adver- 
tising. The public is aware of their merits. Novelties 
should be planted only to test their value, not as a com- 
mercial venture. 



246 FRUIT GROWING 

In selecting varieties for the home fruit garden, quaUty 
is the most desirable characteristic. The commercial 
fruit grower must carefully consider hardiness, produc- 
tiveness, and shipping quahties. These are not so im- 
portant to the home fruit grower. 

Heeling-in. — When the trees arrive from the nursery, 
they should be unpacked as soon as possible and heeled-in. 
This consists in selecting a well-drained spot along the 
north side of a building, fence, or woods, and digging a 
trench large enough to accommodate the roots of the trees 
without crowding. The trees are then set in this trench, 
facing the north and slanting at an angle of about forty- 
five degrees. The soil is then packed firmly about the 
roots to keep them in a moist condition. At no time 
should the roots be exposed to the sun or drying winds. 
It is essential at planting time to keep them covered with 
soil, moist burlap, or in water until ready for use. 

The Time for Planting. — The spring is usually the best 
time to plant an orchard. In some localities, fall planting 
is also successful, but if a severe winter follows, the trees 
are Hable to injury from freezing. If spring planting is 
practiced, it is desirable to get the trees set as early as the 
ground can be worked. The cool moist spring days per- 
mit the tree to become established before the warm dry 
summer sets in. 

Preparation of Soil. — The method of preparing the 
soil depends upon its nature, texture, and fertihty. If the 
land is in sod it is a good plan to plant it with some culti- 
vated crop for a season or two before setting the trees. 
This brings the soil into a uniform and mellow condition. 
If the soil is shallow or contains a stiff hard pan near the 
surface, this should be loosened up as deeply as possible 



PLANTING THE TREES 247 

with the plow. If the soil is light and poor, a heavy coat- 
ing of manure before plowing will prove very beneficial. 
Land for orchard planting should be prepared deeply and 
thoroughly, as it is much more difficult and expensive to 
improve a soil after the trees are set. 

Laying out the Orchard. — For the small orchard, the 
trees may be located by stretching a line or wire across 
the field where the first row is to be planted and marking 
off proper distances on the wire with white string or cloth. 
After the stakes have been set at these points for the first 
row, the line is moved to the next and the process continued. 

If the area is large, it is well to establish a base line along 
one side of the orchard with stakes marking the position 
of the rows. Another hne should be run along an adjacent 
side at right angles to this base Hne and stakes set along it 
at the distance of the trees in the rows. If similar lines 
are marked off along the other two sides of the orchard, 
the correct location of any tree may be determined by 
sighting. 

Planting the Trees. — This is generally done with the aid 
of a planting board. This board should be four or five 

Fig. 133. — A planting board. 

feet long, about three inches wide, and a half inch thick. 
A square notch is cut out of the center and at each end 
along one side of the board. The board is so placed that 
the stake marking the position of the tree fits into the 
center notch and a stake is driven in each notch at the ends. 
The center stake is then pulled up and the board, after 
the hole is dug, is replaced against the two outside stakes. 



248 



FRUIT GROWING 



The tree is then set in such a manner that its trunk comes 
through the center notch in perfect ahgnment. 

In planting large orchards, furrowing along the tree rows 
is often practiced. The holes are cleaned out by hand. 
As a rule the harder the soil, the larger the holes should 
be dug. When the soil has been well prepared, the hole 
need only be large enough to receive all the roots of the 
tree without twisting or crowding. If the top soil is shallow 

and the subsoil hard, 
the bottom of the 
hole should be 
loosened. A very 
objectionable prac- 
tice is that of throw- 
ing coarse or fresh 
manure into the 
bottom of the hole. 
While these materi- 
als are decomposing, 
they absorb mois- 
ture and cause heat- 
ing which is injuri- 
ous to the roots of 
the trees. It is a 
better practice to 
separate the rich surface soil from the subsoil when digging 
the hole and to use only the best soil in the bottom of the 
hole, packing it firmly about the roots, being careful that 
no air spaces are left, especially beneath the crown. 

When the young tree is dug from the nursery, much of 
the root system is removed, so that at the time of planting 
the roots will be found with broken and ragged ends. 




Fig. 134. — Planting young orchard trees. Note how 
the hands are used in packing soil around the roots. 



CARE OF TREES 249 

These should be trimmed off with a sharp knife, making 
a clean cut that will heal readily. In planting, one man 
should hold the tree with one hand and pack the soil well 
about the roots with the other, using his fingers for pushing 
the soil under the crown and between the roots and finally 
tramping it down firmly with his heels ; while another 
shovels the soil into the hole. If the soil is not too wet, 
there is little danger of packing it too firmly. It is a 
common mistake to leave the soil too loose about the roots. 
The poorer soil may be finally used on top, the upper sur- 
face of which should be left loose to prevent the loss of 
soil moisture. If it is desirable to use fresh or strawy 
manure, it is a good plan to mulch the top of the soil 
with it, but well-decomposed manure may be thoroughly 
mixed with the soil before planting. If the planting is 
done in the fall, the soil should be banked up for at 
least a foot around the tree to prevent the wind from 
loosening it during the winter, and also to provide surface 
drainage and protection from mice. Care and attention 
in the first planting of the tree is more economical than 
resetting. 

Care of Trees the First Season. — The season directly 
after planting is the most critical period in the life of a tree. 
Whatever system of orchard management is finally adopted, 
everything should be done the first season to enable the 
trees to make a strong vigorous growth. If tillage is 
practiced, it should be done thoroughly and often, as it 
not only conserves soil moisture, but accelerates the chemi- 
cal action of the soil, making plant food more available. 
If mulching is practiced, a heavy appHcation of straw or 
manure should be given, spreading it out a good distance 
from the trees. Cultivation or mulching with manure or 



250 FRUIT GROWING 

straw will also kill all weeds which might in their growth 
absorb much soil moisture and plant food. 

Although too much growth can hardly take place the 
first season, it is well to cease cultivation about the first of 
August so that the trees may have an opportunity to mature 
their new wood and harden it before winter. Generally a 
cover crop is sown at this time, which absorbs much of the 
plant food that might otherwise wash away or leach through 
the soil. The trees should be carefully watched for climb- 
ing cut worms, San Jose scale, leaf curl, and web worms. 
If all insects and diseases are checked as soon as they 
appear, little injury will result, but carelessness in these 
matters may prove fatal to young trees. 

In addition to cultivation, it is frequently advisable to 
feed the trees after planting to enable them to gain a good 
start. Of all the fertilizers that are used for this purpose, 
well-decomposed stable manure is the best general fertilizer, 
and should be applied early enough so that the trees may 
receive the benefit of it during their early spring growth. 
Nitrate of soda is sometimes used to stimulate growth. 
This fertilizer should not come in direct contact with' the 
roots. Being very soluble, it is advisable to make two or 
three light applications rather than one heavy one. As 
a source of potash, unleached hardwood ashes or muriate 
of potash may be used. Some forms of phosphate, as 
acid phosphate, may also prove beneficial. 

EXERCISES 

1. How many acres of your farm are adapted to fruit 
growing ? 

2. Describe a near-by site that would be ideal for an orchard. 



HOME PROJECTS 251 

3. Name the best winter apple to grow in your locality ; name 
the best summer and fall varieties for your locality. 

4. With Baldwin apples planted 36 feet apart each way, 
how many trees will be required to plant an eight-acre field by 
the square system with the side and end rows 18 feet from the 
borders of the field ? How many trees will be required to plant 
this area by the hexagonal system ? 

5. What is the reason for packing the soil firmly about the 
roots when planting trees? 

{To the Teacher: The class may be divided into squads of 
three to five students, and each squad assigned a piece of land 
on which to plan, stake, and plant out an orchard of at least ten 
trees. One-year-old seedling peaches may be grown or pur- 
chased very cheaply for this work. Each squad should make 
its own planting board.) 



HOME PROJECTS 

1. Set out an orchard of at least ten trees on the system most 
desirable for your conditions. When planting the trees, fer- 
tilize them by mixing the soil with well-rotted manure or by 
applying fresh manure on top as a mulch. 

2. Make an orchard survey of the tree fruits within a 
radius of one mile of your home. Tabulate your facts as 
follows : 

(a) Total number of orchards. 

(6) Total number of trees. 

ic) Total number of each kind of fruit trees. 

{d) Total number with good soil drainage. Average con- 
dition of trees. 

{e) Total number with poor soil drainage. Average condi- 
tion of trees. 

(/) Total number with good air drainage. Average con- 
dition of trees. 



252 FRUIT GROWING 

(g) Total number with poor air drainage. Average condi- 
tion of trees. 

{h) Number of each kind wjth northern exposure. Average 
condition of trees. 

{i) Number of each kind with southern exposure. Average 
condition of trees. 

(J) Number of each kind with eastern exposure. Average 
condition of trees. 

{k) Number of each kind with western exposure. Average 
condition of trees. 

(/) Number of each kind on sandy soil. Average condition 
of trees. 

{m) Number of each kind on sandy loam. Average condi- 
tion of trees. 

{n) Number of each kind on clay loam. Average condition 
of trees. 

{o) Number of each kind on stiff clay. Average condition 
of trees. 



CHAPTER VI 
ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 

Fruit trees will not produce profitable crops when left 
alone to struggle for their existence. Good fruits are 
produced only when the trees are supplied with an abun- 
dance of food and moisture. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation aerates the soil, improves its 
texture, and makes plant food available. It also deepens 
the top soil, and increases the feeding area of the roots. The 
practice of plowing the soil in the spring and harrowing it 
frequently during the growing season is followed by many 
successful growers. This is known as the soil-mulch sys- 
tem. By stirring the soil and keeping the upper surface 
loose and friable, soil moisture is maintained and the 
growth of weeds prevented. As this is the cheapest method 
of maintaining soil moisture and of feeding the trees it is 
usually the most desirable practice. As early in the spring 
as the land can be worked a cover crop should be turned 
under and the soil smoothed down with a harrow. Every 
week or ten days, and after every heavy rain, the land is 
again harrowed to keep the top soil fine and loose. This 
is continued until late summer, when a cover crop is sown 
and left until the following spring. 

Some growers find it better to practice the sod-mulch 
system. Where the land is unusually fertile and moist, 
good fruit may be grown by this system. On farms where 
the fruit crop is not the principal money crop or where the 
land slopes so that cultivation cannot be practiced without 

253 



254 



ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 




MAINTAINING FERTILITY 255 

severe washing, this system is advisable. Here the grass 
is cut three or four times a year, and left on the ground or 
raked under the outer branches of the trees. It thus 
serves as a mulch to prevent the loss of soil moisture. It 
is frequently necessary, however, to apply additional 
straw or coarse manure. Since the plant food on this 
system is not liberated so rapidly in the soil, it generally 
becomes necessary to fertilize more heavily than where the 
soil-mulch system is practiced. In planting trees, the sod 
should be turned under for a considerable distance around 
the trees and a heavy coating of straw applied until they 
have grown sufficiently to shade the ground beneath. 

Maintaining Fertility. — Maintaining fertility is one of 
the serious problems that confront the fruit grower. The 
general farmer keeps stock enough on the farm to supply 
fertilizer for his land, but the fruit grower without live 
stock must find some other method of maintaining the 
fertility of his fields. Unlike the annual crops of the 
farmer, a fruit tree grows for years on the same site, draw- 
ing the same kind of plant food from the soil. 

The purchase of plant food in the form of commercial 
fertilizers is expensive. The cheapest source of fertilizer 
for the fruit gardener is the soil itself, but often this plant 
food is in an unavailable form. Tillage lets in the air and 
promotes the activity of the soil. It is the cheapest way 
of making plant food available. 

It is not always sufficient to improve the fertility of an 
orchard by tillage alone, but it will help much in reducing 
the amount of fertihzer that need be furnished. When 
an orchard has been in sod for a number of years, its growth 
may be stimulated by breaking up the sod and thus liberat- 
ing plant food. 



256 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 

Cover Crops. — Most trees produce their new growth 
from the time the buds open in the spring until midsummer. 
It is therefore essential that the plant food be available 
at this time. Plowing, harrowing, or disking the soil early 
in the spring and keeping it well cultivated until midsum- 
mer promotes this condition. To cease cultivation about 
midsummer tends to stop the growth of wood and causes 
it to ripen and harden for winter. The practice of sowing 
some crop on the soil about midsummer to be later turned 
under is called " cover cropping." 

Functions of Cover Crops. — The relation of cover crops 
to tree growth has already been explained. Their relation 
to soil fertility is also important. A soil that is kept con- 
stantly cultivated soon loses its humus and consequently 
its mellowness and friability. To maintain the texture of 
the soil, it is necessary to have plants decaying in it at all 
times. When orchards are cultivated, this annual loss of 
plant fiber to the soil must be replaced. The practice of 
cover cropping generally proves to be the most economical 
method. Under this system the soil grows its own crops, 
produces its own humus, and thus maintains its own tex- 
ture. When plants are plowed under in the spring, they 
soon decay and the plant food that they contain is Hberated 
and becomes available at a time when the trees most need 
this food. 

Light sandy soils and many of the clay soils are generally 
low in nitrogen. Cover crops may be used to add nitrogen 
to the soil. When a soil is low in nitrogen, those plants 
that have the power of taking nitrogen from the air 
should be sown. For this purpose clovers, vetches, peas, 
and beans are sown. 

Cover crops prevent weed growth, and on sandy soils 



COVER CROPS 257 

absorb plant food that might otherwise leach away. These 
food elements are stored in the form of plant tissues during 
the fall and winter and are returned to the trees in the 
spring after decay begins. 

In orchards upon sloping sites, cover crops prevent 
washing. They also hold the leaves and snow, and pro- 
duce a matting over the soil that is often extremely 
valuable in preventing deep freezing and winter injury. 

Choice of Cover Crops. — In some orchards it is desirable 
to disk the land in the spring, hence a cover crop should be 



^MHPPMHI^^I 









Fig. 136. — Sweet clover as a cover crop in a cherry orchard. 

used that can be easily worked into the soil at that time. 
Under these conditions, oats, buckwheat, peas, barley, 
or turnips are often used. 

When the trees are producing a weak growth, some 
legume as winter vetch, crimson clover, mammoth clover, 
peas, or soy beans should be sown. But when the trees 
are growing too rapidly or making too much wood at the 
expense of fruit production, these plants should not be used. 
Rye, oats, or some other non-legume should be grown. 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 1/ 



258 



()R( HARD MANAGEMENT 



The locality of the orchard has much to do with the kind 
of cover crop grown. Crops adapted to special conditions 
of soil should also be selected. Vetches thrive best upon 
sandy lands while clovers do well on a clay soil. 

Certain crops are frequently combined as cover crops. 
Oats and Canada peas, rye and winter vetch, buckwheat 
and clover, and turnips and clover are desirable combina- 
tions. 

An ideal plant for a cover crop is one that starts to grow 
quickly and with which it is not difhcult to secure a uni- 
form stand. It must produce a fair amount of growth in 
late summer and be able to withstand tramping during 
the picking season. If the plant is one that lives through 
the winter, it must start to grow early in the spring. 

QUANTITIES OF COVER CROP SEED TO SOW PER ACRE 



Legumes 



"Winter vetch 25 lb. 

Spring vetch 90 lb. 

Mammoth clover . . . . 20 lb. 

Crimson clover 20 lb. 

Sweet clover 15 lb. 

Cowpeas 90 lb. 

Velvet beans 25 lb. 

Soy beans 90 lb. 



Non-Legumes 



Rye 48 lb. 

Oats 2 bu. 

Buckwheat f bu. 

Turnips 2 lb. 



Plowing under Cover Crops. — Cover crops should be 
turned under as early in the spring as the soil can be worked. 
Then the plant tissues are soft and decay readily after 
being turned under. If the cover crop is allowed to reach 
large size before plowing much soil moisture is lost by 
transpiration from the growing plants. 



FERTILIZERS 259 

Barnyard Manure. — Where a sufficient amount of 
barnyard manure is obtainable at a reasonable price, it 
may be profitably utilized in the orchard. Barnyard 
manure is a complete fertilizer and acts in two ways, — 
directly by adding plant food, and indirectly by adding 
humus to the soil. Rank-growing trees should not be 
fertilized with barnyard manure, but where the trees are 
weak and the foliage is yellow, it proves most beneficial. 
It may be applied to the orchard at almost any season of 
the year, but most advantageously in early spring, when 
there will be less waste by leaching and washing. Its 
effect upon orchard trees is more lasting than that of com- 
mercial fertilizers. A good dressing of it once every two 
or three years is sufficient. 

Commercial Fertilizers. — The function of commercial 
fertilizers is to supply the kinds of plant food that are de- 
ficient in the soil and that are necessary for producing 
profitable crops. Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash 
are called the essential fertilizers because they are the ones 
that are likely to be present in but limited amounts in the 
soil. 

Nitrogenous fertilizers promote a vigorous growth of 
both twigs and foliage. Nitrate of soda is used when it 
is desirable to apply a fertilizer whose nitrogen is quickly 
available. It should be applied only when the trees can 
take it up immediately, as it is very soluble in water and 
hence apt to leach away. Sulphate of ammonia has much 
the same value and effect as nitrate of soda. Cottonseed 
meal, dried blood, tankage, and fish scrap are used more in 
producing crops that have a long growing season, since the 
nitrogen which they contain is more slowly available. 

Phosphoric acid promotes fruit production and the 



26o ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 

development of a matured hardy growth. Bones and 
phosphate rocks are the chief sources of this element. 
When these are treated with sulphuric acid, the product 
is called acid phosphate. 

Potash induces the formation of a well-matured growth 
and high-colored fruit. Muriate of potash, sulphate of 
potash, and wood ashes are the most common sources of 
this fertilizer. 

Commercial fertilizers are generally applied to the 
orchard with a fertihzer drill or by broadcasting and har- 
rowing them into the soil. This should be done in the 
spring soon after the trees have started their growth. It 
is a mistake to fertilize a fruit tree only near the base of the 
trunk. The feeding roots of a bearing tree are nearly all 
under the outer branches and between the rows. This is 
the place where the fertilizer should be applied. 

In maintaining the fertility of an orchard, it is seldom 
advisable to depend entirely upon commercial fertilizers. 
They should be used not to replace tillage, green manures, 
or barnyard manures, but rather to supplement them. It 
is only on soil of good texture supplied with plenty of 
humus that the best results with commercial fertilizers can 
be obtained. 

Pruning. — The productiveness of an orchard depends 
largely upon the skill and attention that is given to pruning. 
Each tree in an orchard has only as much top growth as 
its roots can support. The fruit grower desires a vigorous 
top that will produce the largest and best fruit. Pruning 
induces this vigor by concentrating the growth into less 
wood. Many farmers judge the thoroughness of their 
work by the size of the pile of prunings they have under 
their trees. Severe pruning induces the growth of water 



PRUNING 



261 



sprouts. This is because the tree endeavors to restore the 
natural balance existing between the top and the root 
system. It takes a tree two or three years after a severe 
pruning to become productive again. The first important 
rule of pruning is to prune 
regularly and lightly. 

Pruning has two im- 
portant functions: (i) to 
modify the vigor and 
fruitfulness of the tree, 
and (2) to secure a tree 
of such form as to produce 
fruit most economically. 
The latter function is of 
great importance. Dur- 
ing the earher years 
pruning consists largely 
in shaping the tree so 
that the spraying, thin- 
ning, and harvesting may 
be most easily performed. 

The height from the 
ground at which the 
branching should begin 
varies with the different Fig. 137. 
kinds of fruits and with 
the various locahties in which they are grown. In some 
sections, peaches are pruned so that their heads are 
formed but a very short distance from the ground, while 
in other places they are started a foot and a half to two and 
a half feet from the ground. In general, apples are so 
pruned that their heads are formed eighteen inches to three 




Pear tree after planting, 
and after pruning. 



Before 



262 



ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 



and a half feet from the ground. In sections of the 
country where the trees are subject to sun scald, it is the 

practice to start the heads 
lower, so that the tops 
may shade the trunks. 
Pruning, spraying, and 
harvesting may all be 
performed economically 
upon low-headed trees. 

Many trees have their 
heads formed when re- 
ceived from the nursery. 
In such cases, four or five 
of the strongest branches 
should be selected to form 
the future framework of 
the tree. These should be 
distributed over at least 
fifteen inches of the trunk and extend in all directions. 
No two of them should be on opposite sides, as this pro- 
duces a crotch which will easily split when heavily loaded 
with fruit. All other branches should be removed and 
the main limbs cut back a third to a half their length. 
At the end of the second season's growth, each of these 
scaffold limbs will have produced two or more lateral 
branches. These in turn should be carefully selected and 
headed back in order to produce a top with evenly dis- 
tributed branches. It is well to remember that during 
the first three years, the weaker portions of the tree must 
be filled out. After this time there will be Uttle pruning 
to do until the tree comes into bearing, except to cut out 
branches growing in the wrong direction. 




Fig. 138. — A bad crotch, which will easily split. 



PRUNING 



263 



In pruning bearing trees, the object is to produce vigor 
and fruitfulness. All dead branches should be removed 
and others thinned where crowded, as high-colored fruit 
cannot be produced without sunlight. A good circulation 
of air through the tree is desirable in the production of 
clean, healthy fruit. All branches of a tree should grow 
outward like the spokes of a wheel. When they cross and 
interlace they steal the space allotted to each other, and 
as they enlarge they rub and chafe each other. 

One should endeavor to keep the tops of the trees from 
growing too high, so that the fruit may be sprayed and 
harvested without difficulty. Hence, in pruning bearing 
trees, it is frequently necessary to cut back the tops a short 
distance and also to open up the center of the tree to let 



^ 




M 


^ 


/ ; 
/ / 


% 


J^^ 




^^^^ 


\^-<^|4 > 




p^^ 


^ 




mmm 


^'^ipMI 


^F^7 


^ 




5^SBi 


MSMim^M^.^ 


:-^i 




iias^^^ 



Fig. 139. — An apple tree before pruning. Fig. 140. — The same tree after pruning. 

in the light and air. Severe pruning in this manner, how- 
ever, will frequently cause serious damage from sun scald. 

Although trees may be pruned at almost any season of 
the year except when the sap is flowing, early spring is 
usually the best time. Pruning during the dormant stage 
stimulates growth, while summer pruning seems to weaken 



264 



ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 





the trees. Pruning may be performed at any time during 
the fall or winter, but the wounds do not start to heal 
until spring. 

All trees should be pruned in such a manner as to pre- 
vent decay and to preserve sound trunks. This is ac- 
complished by cut- 
ting the branches in 
such a way that 
they will heal read- 
ily. The living and 
growing part of a 
tree is the cambium 
layer that lies just 
beneath the bark. 
All the new cells are 
produced in this tis- 
sue, some of them 
being pushed outward to produce the bark, while those on 
the inside become the wood tissue. When a branch is 
removed, healing tissue is produced in this cambium layer 
and gradually grows over the wound. This protects the 
wood cells beneath it from the fungi and bacteria that cause 
decay. 

To hasten the healing of wounds all branches should 
be cut as close to the trunk or branch as possible. In 
pruning twigs it is also better to prune to a bud, — that is, 
to cut the twig just above a bud, — which draws the sap to 
the wound. If a limb is cut eight or ten inches beyond the 
trunk, the wound does not heal readily and when a stub 
becomes decayed the disease travels down through the 
heart of the tree, causing a hollow trunk. Such a tree 
blows over easily during a heavy storm. To protect 



Fig. 141. — Proper and imnroper removal of a large 
limb. The trunk on right shows the proper method. 



EXERCISES 265 

wounds larger than an inch and a half in diameter from 
decay, it is well to paint them. Raw linseed oil and pure 
white lead mixed to a thick paste make the best paint for 
this purpose. 

In pruning large limbs in which there is danger of the 
weight of the branch stripping the bark before the limb is 
entirely sawed off, a cut is made on the under side of the 
branch about a foot from the trunk, by sawing about a 
third through the branch. The branch is then sawed off 
from the upper side a short distance beyond this point. 
The stub is then pruned away close to the trunk without 
danger. The cleaner the cut, the more quickly it will heal, 
hence in pruning large branches, it is advisable to trim 
the cambium layer with a sharp knife after the branch is 
sawed off. Tools that make sharp, clean cuts rather than 
jagged wounds should always be used in pruning. 

EXERCISES 

1. Name the two mulching systems and give the advantages 
of each. 

2. Is the practice of cover-cropping common in your locality? 
What kinds of cover crops, if any, are used ? 

3. Obtain roots of vetch, mammoth clover, peas, and beans, 
and observe the nodules in which live the bacteria that have 
the power of taking nitrogen from the air and giving it to the 
nodule-bearing plants. 

4. How much seed would it take to sow a cover crop of winter 
vetch in an orchard 384 feet long and 256 feet wide? When 
should it be seeded and when should it be plowed under ? 

5. How are orchards usually fertilized in your section? 
Are commercial fertilizers used ? 

6. What is the effect of nitrogen on plant growth? How 
do potash and phosphoric acid affect fruit production ? 



266 ORCHARD MANAGEMENT 



HOME PROJECT 



Prune six trees of a bearing orchard as directed in the 
text. Describe in spaces the condition of the trees before 
pruning ; the approximate number, size, and position of the 
branches removed; your reasons for so doing; and the time 
required to prune each tree. Note the results of your work on 
the character and size of the new growth, the color, size, and 
quaUty of the fruit. What conclusions can you draw as to the 
necessity, amount, and character of pruning the trees require ? 



CHAPTER VII 
FRUIT PESTS 

There are few sections where fruit may be grown without 
protection from insects and diseases. Each year new 
pests appear and the older a fruit section becomes the 
more numerous are its insects and diseases. 

INSECT PESTS 

From a horticultural standpoint, the insects with which 
a fruit grower has to contend may all be grouped under 
two heads, — the chewing insects and the sucking insects. 





Fig. 142. — Section of a wormy apple. Codling moth and cocoon. 
267 



268 



FRUIT PESTS 



Chewing Insects. — The chewing insects actually eat 
or chew some portion of the plant. The tent caterpillar 
eats the foHage, and the " worm " of the codling moth chews 
the fruit. As a rule, such insects are most easily controlled 
by poisoning their food. Arsenic is the poison usually 
used. The most common commercial forms of this poison 
are Paris green and arsenate of lead. 

Codling Moth. — The codHng moth, a small grayish- 
brown moth, attacks apples, pears, and quinces. It causes 

the fruit to ripen 
prematurely and fall 
to the ground. This 
insect probably does 
more damage to the 
fruit than any other. 
About the time the 
young fruits are be- 
ginning to form, the 
adult insect flies 
about the orchard 
laying its eggs. 
Each egg hatches 
into a worm that 
eats its way into 
the fruit, usually 
through the calyx, 
where it lives until mature. The insect leaves the fruit 
at this time and finds its way to some protected place 
where it forms a cocoon and later changes to a moth. 

The codling moth is controlled by spraying with arsenate 
of lead or some other arsenical poison. This should be 
appHed immediately after the petals have fallen so that 




Fig. 143. — Time to spray for the codling moth — 
just after the petals have fallen and before the 
calyx lobes close. 



CANKERWORM 



269 



the poison will reach the small calyx before the worm enters 
the fruit. As the time of hatching is somewhat prolonged, 
it is advisable to spray again in ten days or two weeks. 
In many sections of the country there are two or more 
broods of the codling moth in one summer, and under 
these conditions it is necessary to repeat the spraying at 
the times of the succeeding broods, the exact times varying 
with the season and locality. The worms of the last 
brood are the ones seen when the winter apples are har- 
vested. Many of 
them leave the fruit 
while in storage and 
form their cocoons on 
the sides of crates, 
barrels, or other 
storage receptacles. 
Cankerworm. — 
The cankerworm 
feeds upon the f ohage 
of apple trees, often 
entirely stripping 
them of leaves. The 
worms are brownish 
and about an inch 
long when fully 

grown The V lower ^^^" ^'*'^' ~ ^^^^ °^ ^ *^"^* caterpillar on an apple tree. 

themselves to the ground by means of a line thread. 

Cankerworms are controlled by spraying with an arsen- 
ical poison applied as soon as the worms are seen. Ar- 
senate of lead applied as soon as the leaves are formed in 
the spring, usually controls them. Where the fall canker- 
worm is troublesome, use the same spray in the fall. 



mi 



mmmm 



270 



FRUIT PESTS 



Tent Caterpillar. — The tent caterpillar forms a web- 
like tent in the crotch of the branches. The insects leave 
this protection at certain times of the day to feed upon 
the foliage, returning to the tents at night. The young 
caterpillars, which hatch in the spring just as the leaves 
open, are voracious eaters. Unless controlled, they will 
soon strip an infested tree of its foHage. They are es- 
pecially fond of the foHage of apples and cherries. They 
grow very rapidly until matured, when they are about 
two inches long. 

The tent caterpillar is easily controlled by spraying the 
foHage with arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the trees 
are not sprayed, the tents formed are readily seen and 
should be cut out or destroyed when the worms are still 
inside. 

Webworm. — The webworm is often mistaken for 
the tent caterpillar, but it differs from the latter in ap- 
pearing later and in forming its web over its feeding sur- 
face rather than simply in the crotch of the branches. The 
fall webworm, which is most common, usually appears in 
July or August. 

This insect may be easily controlled by pruning and 
burning the webs when they first appear, and while they 
are still small. If not controlled the web enlarges and 
covers large branches which the worms defoliate. 

Plum Curculio. — This is the worst enemy of plums and 
often attacks cherries. The mature beetle is about a quar- 
ter of an inch long, grayish-brown, with two conspicuous 
humps on its back, and feeds slightly upon the foliage. 
It has a long snout with which it cuts a crescent-shaped 
hole on the surface of a young hard fruit in which it deposits 
its egg. The white grub, which hatches from the egg, eats 



SUCKING INSECTS 



271 




its way towards the center of the fruit, eventually causing 
it to drop. Sometimes it also stings the fruit of the apple, 
pear, and quince, causing the formation of knotty fruit. 
The apple curculio also works in a similar manner. 

Regular spraying with arsenical poison is generally effec- 
tive in controlling these insects. When the beetles are 
very numerous they may be 
quickly reduced by jarring 
the trees very early in the 
morning, beginning soon after 
the fruit begins to set. The 
larger branches are knocked 
with a padded pole and the 
curculio curls up when it 
feels the sudden jar, drops 
to the ground, and may be 
caught on a white sheet 
spread beneath the tree. 

Sucking Insects. — The sucking insects do not chew or 
eat any portion of a plant, but with their long tubular 
mouth parts they pierce its surface and suck its juices. 
Plant lice and scale insects are common examples of this 
group. It is impossible to poison their food by spraying 
with arsenical poisons. In dealing with such insects, it 
is necessary to use a contact spray ; that is, one that will 
kill when it strikes the body of the insect. The most 
common spray of this class is the lime-sulphur spray used 
against the San Jose scale. Various tobacco extracts or 
nicotine sprays used in killing plant lice are also examples 
of contact sprays. Sucking insects are very difficult to 
destroy as it is necessary to hit each insect with the spray. 
Therefore, thoroughness in spraying is essential to success, 



Fig. 145. — Plum tree curculio. a, larva ; 
b, pupa ; c, mature beetle ; d, curculio 
on young plum. 




272 FRUIT PESTS 

since the insects are extremely small and every portion of 
the plant must be covered. 

Plant Lice or Aphids. — Plant hce usually appear on 
the foliage or young growths in the spring and early sum- 
mer. Some seasons they are more prevalent than others. 
These insects suck the plant juices, causing the leaves to 
curl and become distorted. The green aphid attacks the 
apple, pear, and plum trees, while the common black aphid 
works on the cherry. The eggs are laid 
on the branches of the trees in the 
autumn, hatch in the spring, and the lice 
locate upon the young shoots. The 
woolly aphid attacks both the branches 
and roots of the apple and is distinguished 
from the others by having a conspicuous 
Fig. 146. -An aphid. ^Q^Hy covering. The root-inhabiting 
variety of this insect does the most injury. Infected roots 
become contorted and the tree sickens or dies. 

If the foliage is infected, it should be sprayed with 
nicotine or strong tobacco tea before the leaves curl. The 
root aphid is destroyed by the use of tobacco dust, four to 
six handfuls of which should be spread on the soil and 
thoroughly worked into it. The ends of the shoots of young 
trees should be dipped into a pail of tobacco water. 

San Jose Scale. — The San Jose scale is the most dan- 
gerous insect pest of the orchard. All our common fruit 
trees are subject to its attack as well as many of the small 
fruits like the currant and gooseberry. It is found upon 
the branches, leaves, and fruit of the tree and is usually 
first discovered on the fruit during the harvesting period. 
Here it causes red, circular discolorations, in the center of 
which are the black scales. The insect is exceedingly dif- 



BORERS 



273 



ficult to detect on the branches unless badly infected. The 
tiny yellow body is completely covered with a single small 
dark scale not so large as the head of a pin. The dead 
scales are gray in color. When rubbed off they leave 
white circular spots, and cause badly infected branches to 
have a rather grayish appearance. This scale multiplies 
very rapidly and with its 
tube-Hke mouth parts it 
pierces the surface of the 
plant, sucking the juices 
within. If not controlled, 
it will kill large fruit trees 
in a few years. 

In infected regions, trees 
must be sprayed each 
year. The application of 
strong Hme-sulphur spray 
appHed early in the spring 
just before the buds open is 
now the standard method 
of control. It is necessary 
to spray the trees while 
they are dormant to per- 
mit the apphcation of a 
spray strong enough to 

kiU the insect without injuring the trees. As this is a 
contact poison, thoroughness is of prime importance, for 
a small number of insects left untouched will cause serious 
infection the following season. 

Borers. — Borers are injurious to peach and apple trees. 
They usually infect the trunks of the trees just above the 
ground. They cannot be controlled by spraying, as the 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 18 




Fig. 147. — San Jose scale insects. Enlarged. 
m, male scale ; /, female scale ; y, young 
scale ; a, young insect. 



2 74 FRUIT PESTS 

poison cannot be placed where it will be effective. Many- 
kinds of washes have been recommended, but few of them 
prove satisfactory. The fruit grower usually examines 
his trees every spring and fall, and digs out all borers that 
he finds working in the trunks. The soil should be re- 
moved from the base of the tree about a week or two be- 
fore digging out the borers. Their presence will then be 
indicated by fresh castings. 

FRUIT DISEASES 

The fruit grower has to contend also with plant diseases. 
These may be classified under two heads, — fungous and 
bacterial diseases. 

Fungous Diseases. — A fungus is a plant living upon 
other plants. It contains no chlorophyll and, therefore, 
cannot manufacture food for itself, hence it must live by 
appropriating food from other plants. Some fungi live 
upon the fruit, others upon the foliage, and others upon 
the bark of the branches, while still others live upon two 
or more parts of the tree. Nearly all scabs, smuts, mil- 
dews, rots, and blights are fungous diseases. For the 
control of these it is well to know something of their life 
history. Fungi reproduce by means of minute spores, 
which are somewhat similar to seeds. These spores, car- 
ried by the wind, insects, or rain, alight on the surface of a 
leaf or fruit and if conditions are favorable germinate 
there. Most spores will not germinate unless moisture is 
present. The .spores upon germinating produce small 
rootlets which penetrate the surface of the leaf or skin of 
the fruit and spread from cell to cell in every direction, 
feeding upon the tissues within. When a fungus has reached 
this stage, it is impossible to destroy it with a spray, since 



SCAB 



275 



it is within the tissues. In a short time, the fungus bears 
fruit by sending up above the surface many small stalks 
which bear thousands of other microscopic spores, which 
are afterwards carried to other portions of the plant and 
to other plants. This is a typical example of the life his- 
tory of a fungus. It shows pretty clearly that common 
fungous diseases must be controlled by spraying before 
the spores germinate. Spraying 
is a preventive measure rather 
than a cure. We cannot cure 
potatoes after they have been 
blighted or apples after they 
have been affected with scab, 
but we can prevent the spores 
from spreading to others. Bor- 
deaux mixture and lime-sulphur 
solution are the two most 
effective sprays for controlling 
fungous diseases. 

Scab. — This is one of the 
most common fungous diseases 
of apples and pears, especially Fig 
in wet seasons. It is most 
apparent upon the fruit, causing brown or black blotches 
with whitish edges. When the disease becomes excessive, 
it cracks the fruit and causes it to be misshapen. It also 
occurs as brown spots on the leaves and causes them to 
turn yellow and fall. Sometimes this disease attacks 
the young blossom stems and girdles them, causing the 
young fruits to fall. Some varieties, like the Snow apple 
and Flemish Beauty pear, are more susceptible than 
others. 




Pear scab on leaf and 
fruit. 



276 FRUIT PESTS 

Scab may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture or dilute lime-sulphur spray. These should be 
applied just before the blossoms open and again after the 
petals fall. When the weather is moist and warm, a con- 
dition favorable for the development of this disease, ad- 
ditional sprayings may be necessary. Plowing under early 
in the spring, the dead leaves on which the spores have 
rested over winter, is beneficial in controlling the disease. 

Brown Rot. — This disease attacks the stone fruits such 
as peaches, cherries, or plums about the time of ripening, 
causing them to decay quickly. Infected fruit, allowed 
to remain on or under the tree, carries the spores over win- 
ter. During warm, moist weather, this disease develops 
very rapidly. 

There is no cure for the disease when it develops sud- 
denly at the harvesting time. It may be prevented, how- 
ever, by spraying with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture 
after the fruit is set, and two or three times later at in- 
tervals of about two weeks. As most of the stone fruits 
are susceptible to injury by spraying, the dilute lime-sul- 
phur spray is preferable. On peaches and Japanese plums 
the self-boiled hme-sulphur spray should be used. All 
infected fruit should be picked from the trees during har- 
vesting and carried from the orchard. Thinning will also 
help to prevent the spreading of this disease, if it develops 
during the ripening season. 

Bitter Rot. — This is a more serious disease of the apples 
in the South and Middle West than in the more northern 
states. It forms cankers on the branches and makes a 
brown, decayed place on the fruit. The decayed area is 
very bitter and usually extends to the core. 

Bordeaux mixture sprayed as recommended for scab 



PEACH-LEAF CURL 



77 



usually controls this disease. When the disease is very 
bad, additional sprayings later in the season are necessary. 
The cankered areas on the limbs should be cut out and 
burned. 

Shot-hole Fungus. — This fungous disease of cherries, 
plums, peaches, currants, and gooseberries causes round, 
brown spots on the foHage, which later drop out, leaving 
the leaves full of holes. When the disease is severe, the 
leaves turn yellow and fall, thus preventing a vigorous 
growth of the tree and the 
formation of strong fruit 
buds for the succeeding year. 

The foliage should be 
sprayed with dilute lime- 
sulphur before blossoming, 
after the blossoms fall, again 
two weeks later, and some- 
times an additional spraying 
is necessary. For currants 
and gooseberries, the third 
spray should be omitted until 
after the fruit is harvested. 

Peach-leaf Curl. — This is 
a common disease on the 
foliage of the peach, causing the leaves to become curled, 
puckered, puffed over, and reddish in color. If not con- 
trolled, the foliage will drop. 

The spores of the disease are carried over winter on the 
buds and on the twigs, hence it is necessary to spray with 
a fungicide just before the bud scales open. If the trees 
are sprayed with lime-sulphur in the spring for the San 
Jose scale, no additional spraying is necessary. 




Fig. 149. — Peach-leaf curl. 



278 



FRUIT PESTS 



Black Knot. — The large black swellings that are fre- 
quently seen on the branches of the plums and sour cherries 
are caused by the black-knot disease. It attacks the 
young twigs first and works its way down into the larger 
branches, finally killing the tree, if not controlled. 

To control this disease, remove all infected limbs by cut- 
ting several inches below the knot, and then burn. Paint all 




Fig. 150. — Development of black knot on young branches. 

large wounds made in removing infected branches. Spray 
the trees as directed for brown rot, and remove all wild 
cherry trees and neglected plum trees about the garden. 
It is not a serious disease, if controlled. Every spring 
the trees should be carefully examined and all infected 
branches cut out. 

Bacterial Diseases. — Some of the most serious diseases 
of fruits are caused by bacteria. Fire blight, a common 
disease of pears, apples, and quinces, is a familiar example. 
Although we cannot cure or prevent these diseases by 
spraying, because they work entirely within the plant, we 
can generally control them by various means which will 
be considered later. 

Fire Blight. — Fire blight is a serious bacterial disease 
of pears, quinces, and apples. The bacteria work within 



FIRE BLIGHT 279 

the plant tissues, and it is impossible to control the dis- 
ease by spraying. On account of its prevalence, in cer- 
tain sections of the country, many of our standard pears 
cannot be grown. In many of the important pear-grow- 
ing regions, it annually kills thousands of trees and is prob- 
ably the most dreaded of all pear diseases. It appears 
early in the spring at blossoming time and is believed to 
be carried by bees from tree to tree. The blight attacks 
the tips of the young growing branches and works its way 
down to the larger hmbs. If not checked, it spreads so 
rapidly that in a single season, an entire orchard may be 
ruined by it. It causes the leaves to turn dark brown or 
black and the infected branches to shrivel and dry. 

Although this disease cannot be cured it can generally 
be controlled. Certain varieties of fruits are more suscep- 
tible to fire blight than others. The Russian varieties of 
apples such as the Wolf River and the Alexander are very 
susceptible, as well as the Clapp's Favorite and the Bart- 
lett pears, while the Kieffer pear seems to be especially 
resistant. Hence the necessity for selecting resistant 
varieties. As the blight infects most readily the vigorous 
growing branches, infected orchards should be checked in 
their growth. The trees should be kept in a strong healthy 
condition, but they should not be allowed to produce soft, 
sappy, luxuriant growths. All forms of nitrogenous fer- 
tilizers should be withheld and if the orchard has been 
tilled, it should be seeded at once. Care should also be 
taken not to leave wounded parts of the trunk or branches 
exposed. 

The trees should be watched for the first signs of the dis- 
ease upon the tips of the branches, especially during the 
rapid growth of the spring. Infected branches should be 



2 8o FRUIT PESTS 

cut away and burned immediately. All tools used should 
be disinfected in a 5 per cent carbolic acid solution after 
each cut. In the early spring before the buds swell, the 
orchard should be pruned carefully, cutting away all dis- 
eased wood well below the infected area. Cankers on the 
larger branches should also be cut out, burned, and the 
wound disinfected. It is upon these cankers that the 
blight is often carried over from year to year. 

Peach Yellows. — Peach yellows is one of the most 
dreaded diseases of peach trees. Although it cannot 
be cured, it may be controlled. The disease first becomes 
apparent on the infected fruit which ripens prematurely, 
is very highly colored, often spotted with red, and usually 
filled with red streaks extending from the pit to the skin. 
As the disease advances, the leaves turn yellow and in the 
advanced stage, small, slender reddish shoots bearing nar- 
row yellowish leaves are produced. In the beginning only 
certain branches seem to be affected, but the disease soon 
spreads to the whole tree. 

The only method of controUing this disease is to watch 
carefully for any signs of it and to uproot and burn affected 
trees as soon as the disease is detected, as it spreads very 
rapidly through the orchard. During the harvesting 
period, one should be especially watchful and mark all 
trees that show the least signs of being affected. Im- 
mediately after harvest, all such trees should be uprooted 
and burned. 

"Little Peach." — In some regions, "little peach" is 
as serious a disease as the peach yellows. As the name 
implies, the fruit fails to enlarge, and the infected tree soon 
dies. 

The treatment for " little peach " is the same as for 



CROWN GALL 



2«T 



peach yellows. There is nothing that can be done with 
infected trees except to uproot and burn them. 

Crown Gall. — Crown gall causes unsightly swellings to 
appear on the roots of fruit trees. It is most frequently 
found on young *> 




nursery stock. 
From the enlarged 
swellings or knots, 
numerous fine roots 
are frequently pro- 
duced, hence this 
disease is often 
called '' hairy root. " 
The extent of the injury caused by it is not definitely 
known, but it is probable that the vitality of the tree is 
seriously weakened. Nursery stock should be examined 
before planting, and infected stock should be rejected. 
This is the only preventive practiced by the fruit grower. 



Roots infected with crown gall. 



EXERCISES 

1. Give examples of chewing insects, sucking insects, bac- 
terial diseases, and fungous diseases. 

2. Why is an orchard planted in a hollow more susceptible 
to fungous diseases than one upon high sloping land ? 

3. How does the method of pruning exercise an influence 
over disease control? 

4. Examine bare twigs and storage apples for San Jose scale. 
With a pin lift the scale from the insect and examine each with 
the lens. What spray is used against this pest and when is it 
applied ? 

5. Obtain three perfectly sound apples. Break the skin of 
one, bruise another without breaking the skin, and leave the 



282 FRUIT PESTS 

third perfectly sound. Lay away on a plate and observe at 
intervals, noticing in which apple decay first starts. What does 
this teach us regarding the way fruit should be handled? 

6. How many broods of the codling moth are there in your 
region? When does each appear? 

7. How would you detect and handle a case of fire blight? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Make a collection of samples of all the diseases of the 
common fruits of your locality, classifying the same as outlined 
in the text. Describe the life history of each, extent and 
character of the injury done by each, and the proper methods of 
control. 

2. Spray the home orchard for the control of insects or plant 
diseases. 

3. Visit neighboring orchards and collect specimens of all 
insects infecting them. 



CHAPTER VIII 
SPRAYING MIXTURES 

SPRAYS FOR FUNGOUS DISEASES 

Bordeaux Mixture. — Bordeaux mixture is one of the 
standard fungicides and is used especially for fungous 
diseases of the potato, grape, currant, gooseberry, apple, 
pear, and European plum. 

Formula : 

Copper sulphate 4 lb. 

Lime 4 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 

This spray proves most efficient when used directly after 
mixing. To facilitate the work, the fruit grower dissolves 
the copper sulphate in fairly large quantities, and slakes 
lime ready for use. In making the mixture, success de- 
pends largely upon the way the copper sulphate and lime 
are united. Each should be diluted as much as necessary 
before mixing. In making 50 gallons of Bordeaux, the 
copper sulphate should be diluted to 25 gallons and the 
lime to 25 gallons before pouring them together. If the 
mixture is improperly made, it will appear very flocculent 
and settle rapidly, while a good mixture appears creamy 
and stands for some time without settling. Only the best 
fresh stone lime should be used. Prepared or hydra ted 
lime is sometimes used when stone lime is not available. 

Strong Copper Sulphate Solution. — Strong copper sul- 
phate solution is sometimes used as a fungicide to apply 

283 



■84 



SPRAYlNCi IMIXTURES 



upon trees in the spring while they are still dormant. It 
is often used as an early spray on peaches for the leaf 
curl, and on apples for the apple scab. The lime-sulphur 
sprays have largely taken its place. 
Formula : 

Copper sulphate i lb. 

Water ... 2>-sO gal. 



Weak Copper Sulphate 
Solution. — The weak 
copper sulphate solution 
is used as a fungicide to 
control the rot on stone 
fruits when the fruit is 
so far advanced that 
other sprays would dis- 
color it. As this spray 
contains no lime, it does 
not stick so well as Bor- 
deaux mixture and hence 
must be applied more 

frequently. For peaches and Japanese plums it should be 

weaker than for the other fruits. 
Formula : 




Fig. 1^2. — Testing samples of Bordeaux mix 
ture by settling. The second and fifth 
samples are best. 



Copper sulphate 
Water . . . 



I lb. 
150-300 gal. 



Self -boiled Lime-sulphur Solution. — This is a fungicide 
used for trees having very tender foliage and is especially 
valuable for spraying peaches and Japanese plums. 

Formula : 

Lump lime 8 lb. 

Sulphur 8 1b. 

Water 5° gal. 



DILUTE LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION 



285 



Good stone quicklime is selected and enough water added 
to almost cover it. The sulphur is sifted and added to the 
lime as soon as slaking begins. Constant stirring during 
the slaking process is necessary, and sufficient water to 
prevent burning should be added. This mixture should 
slake vigorously for five minutes, when cold water should 
be added to prevent further cooking. 

Dilute Lime-sulphur Solution. — The advantages of 
this spray over Bordeaux mixture are that it can be pre- 
pared very readily, it does not clog the spraying nozzles, 
or cause burning of the foliage and russeting of the fruit. 




Spraying cherries to control the rot. 
growers. 



A typical fruit sprayer used by fruit 



It is used especially during the growing season on the foliage 
of apples, pears, European plums, and cherries, but it 
cannot take the place of Bordeaux mixture in the control 
of potato and grape diseases. 

It is prepared by diluting either the commercial or home- 
made concentrated lime-sulphur solution. The amount of 



286 SPRAYING MIXTURES 

dilution will depend entirely upon the strength of the con- 
centrated solution and the kind of trees to be sprayed. 

SPRAYS FOR CHEWING INSECTS 

Arsenate of Lead. — Arsenate of lead is used exten- 
sively to-day for chewing insects. It sticks better than 




Fig. 154. — Spraying with arsenate of lead, just after petals fall, for codling moth worm. 

Paris green and is not so likely to burn the foliage. When 
the lime and sulphur sprays are used as a fungicide, it is 
one of the few poisons that can safely be mixed with them. 
Formula : 

Arsenate of lead 2 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 

This poison is usually sold in small kegs and comes in the 
form of a paste resembling white lead. Some companies 
manufacture it in the powdered form. In such cases 
but half the amount (by weight) recommended in the 
formula should be used.^ 

Paris Green. — Paris green may be safely used with 
Bordeaux mixture, but not with the lime-sulphur sprays. 

• Arsenate of calcium has given good results as a substitute for arsenate of 
lead and may be used on all except the stone fruits. 



SPRAYS FOR SUCKING INSECTS 287 

It is always advisable to use lime with Paris green to 
prevent burning and to help the Paris green to adhere 
to the foliage. This spray is used on the potato vines to 
control the potato beetle more than for any other purpose. 
Formula : 

Paris green ^ lb. 

Stone lime 2 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 

Hellebore. — Hellebore is the powdered root of a plant. 
It kills insects both by contact and as a poison applied 
on the foliage. Since it is not so strong a poison as the 
arsenical compounds, it may be used with greater safety 
a short time before the fruit ripens. It is used chiefly 
against the currant worm. 

Formula : 

Hellebore i lb. 

Water 25 gal. 

SPRAYS FOR SUCKING INSECTS- 

Strong Lime-sulphur Solution. — There are various 
formulas for making the lime-sulphur solution for scale 
insects, but the following is an old favorite formula that 
has been used by fruit growers for many years and is still 
considered very satisfactory. 

Formula : 

Lump lime 20 lb. 

Sulphur 15 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 

After weighing out the proper amount of stone lime and 
sifting 15 pounds of sulphur, the lime is poured into the 
cooking tank which contains 5 or 10 gallons of boiling 
water, and the sulphur is then added. Enough cold water 



288 



SPRAYING MIXTURES 



should be added to prevent boiling over and to maintain 
a thick liquid. When the mixture has boiled about an hour, 
it should be of a dark amber color. It is then diluted to 
50 gallons and applied to the trees while still hot. 

In making a small quantity of the spray, an iron kettle 
may be used, but when larger quantities are desired, it is 

boiled by live steam 
in a barrel or in a 
large wooden tank. 

Concentrated Lime- 
sulphur Solution. — 
Growers that have 
the facilities for cook- 
ing lime and sulphur 
frequently prefer to 
make it in a con- 
centrated form. This 
may afterwards be 
diluted in spraying 
for the San Jose scale 
or used as a summer spray for fungous diseases. This spray 
is cooked in a similar manner and is afterwards strained 
into an air-tight barrel, as exposure to air causes the sulphur 
compounds to lose their value. Each lot should be tested 
with the Baume hydrometer and diluted when used, 
according to the dilution table. 
Formula : 

Stone lime 75 lb. 

Sulphur 150 lb. 

Water 50 gal. 




Fig. 155. — Making lime-sulphur spray. 



Tobacco. — There are various tobacco extracts now upon 
the market used as contact sprays for plant lice and other 



EXERCISES 289 

insects. The variation in the strength of the several brands 
is such that the recommendations of the makers as to dilu- 
tion should be followed. Nicotine sulphate (40 per cent 
solution) is widely recommended for plant lice. A half pint 
of nicotine sulphate is mixed with 50 gallons of water, 
to which 3 pounds of soap dissolved in hot water is added. 

Kerosene Emulsion. — Kerosene emulsion is used es- 
pecially as a summer spray for plant lice. 

Formula : 

Hard soap I lb. 

Kerosene 2 gal. 

Water 25-50 gal. 

Dissolve the soap in a gallon of soft boiling water and 
add the kerosene, which should have stood in a warm room 
to allow it to become as warm as possible without danger 
from fire. Mix together and stir vigorously for about 
five minutes or until it becomes creamy white. 

For spraying dormant trees dilute only to 1 5 gallons ; for 
spraying trees in foliage dilute to 25 to 50 gallons. 

EXERCISES 

1. In Bordeaux mixture the copper sulphate is the active 
fungicide. Why is the lime added ? 

2. What classes of orchard pests are controlled by Bor- 
deaux mixture and dilute lime-sulphur solution ? 

3. What class of poisons must be added for chewing insects? 
How are they prepared ? 

4. In the control of sucking insects, what sprays are used 
most commonly? How are they made? 

5. Why is arsenate of lead preferred to Paris green? 

6. Why is it best to use lime with Paris green? 

7. At what period of growth should hellebore be used as a 
poison ? Why ? 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — IQ 



290 SPRAYINCx MIXTURES 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Arrange with a local fruit grower for a spraying dem- 
onstration. Enter in your notebook a report covering the 
following items : 

(a) Name of grower. 

(b) Kinds of fruit sprayed. 

(c) Purpose of spraying. 

(d) Date of spraying. 

(e) Formula of spray used. 

(/) Pressure carried during application. 

(g) Description of engine, pump, capacity of tank, length of 
hose and poles, kind and number of nozzles, number of trees 
sprayed per tank. 

{h) Method of application. 

{{) Average number of gallons per tree of spray used. 

(j) Total cost of labor and material per tree. 

2. Select eight trees of about equal size in your own orchard. 
Spray four of them as directed in the foregoing chapter with 
lime-sulphur solution and arsenate of lead at the proper times. 
Compare the yield of the sprayed trees with that of the un- 
sprayed trees. 



CHAPTER IX 

THINNING, HARVESTING, AND STORING FRUIT 

Thinning. — Trees often form more fruit than they can 
properly develop. The breaking of trees while heavily 
loaded is one result of overproduction. The practice of 
picking off part of this fruit before it is matured is known 
as thinning. All scabby, wormy, small, and otherwise 
inferior specimens are removed and the remaining fruit 
thinned to such a distance as to allow perfect development 
of those left on the branches. This concentrates the 
strength of the tree into the development of the best speci- 
mens. 

It is the practice of progressive fruit growers to thin 
peaches, plums, and pears when the trees are heavily loaded. 
The thinning of apples has not been so generally practiced. 
However, the grower endeavoring to produce perfect 
fruit must practice thinning if he wishes to obtain the 
highest percentage of good-sized specimens. Thinning 
does not increase the total yield per tree, but it does greatly 
increase the total of first-class fruit produced. 

When fruit is set very thickly upon the tree, there is 
much danger of severe injury from certain diseases and 
from insects. With the stone fruits, if the weather happens 
to be warm and moist during the harvesting season, brown 
rot often proves a serious trouble. When the fruit is so 
close that the individuals touch each other, the disease 
spreads very rapidly, but if the fruit has been thinned, 
the disease will not prove so serious. In thinning the fruit, 

291 



292 



THINNING AND HARVESTING FRUIT 



all diseased specimens should be carried from the orchard 
and destroyed. Thinning also tends to increase the crops 
in the off years of varieties that bear heavily one year 
and lightly the succeeding year. 

The operation of thinning depends on so many condi- 
tions that no definite rule can be given. Most growers 
have learned by experience the proper distance that fruits 
should be thinned. As a general rule apples should be 
allowed to produce but one fruit to the spur and should 




Fig. 156. — An overloaded peach tree. 

be thinned to a distance of six to ten inches. Large-sized 
varieties of plums are thinned to three to four inches, the 
smaller varieties are thinned to a less distance. Damson 



PICKING 293 

plums are allowed to produce heavily as it is not desirable 
to grow them too large in size. Peaches should be thinned 
to a distance of three to six inches. The large-sized 
varieties of pears should be thinned about the same as 
for apples. Small fruits are not usually thinned. 

The earlier in the season the fruit is thinned the better. 
With most of the tree fruits, thinning should begin imme- 
diately after the " June drop." Thinning may be done 
in August if there is danger of breaking the limbs by over- 
production, but the other benefits will not be so pronounced 
as if the work had been done earlier in the season. 

Fruit is usually thinned by hand, although small shears 
made especially for the purpose are sometimes used. Care 
should be taken not to injure the fruit spurs in the opera- 
tion. When fruit is thinned by hand, the spur is grasped 
firmly in one hand while the fruit is removed with the 
other by bending it and twisting backward. The cost of 
thinning is not great, as the actual time consumed in thin- 
ning is saved at the harvest time in picking and in sorting 
the crop. In the Northwest where this practice is very 
common, it is estimated that thinning costs one and a 
half to two cents per bushel of harvested fruit. 

Picking. — The quahty and grade of fruit depend much 
upon the time and method of picking it. The proper 
time to pick fruit varies with the kind and the variety. 
No definite rules can be given, as much depends upon the 
distance the fruit must be shipped, the climate, season, 
and other local conditions. When fruit is to be shipped 
long distances, it must be picked earlier than fruit intended 
for the local market. All fruits except the pear reach their 
highest quality when they are allowed to ripen on the trees. 

Apples are generally picked when they are well colored 



294 



THINNING AND HARVES1IN(; FRUIT 



and have reached full size. Summer apples and early 
fall varieties are sometimes picked before this time. Win- 
ter apples are harvested when they are well colored, of 
full size, and separate readily from the spur. 

Pears should be harvested when they are of full size, of 
good color, but while still firm. As soon as the fruit has 
reached this stage and separates from the spur by raising 
it upward, the crop may be picked and left to ripen in a 
cool, dark place. 

Plums are picked when they are fully colored but still 
firm. In the home orchard, they should be left to ripen 
on the trees. The Japanese varieties may be harvested 
before they are ripe, as they will color and ripen after 
picking. During seasons when the rot is serious the fruit 
may be gathered slightly earher, although this disease 
proves destructive even after the fruit is picked. 




Fig. 157- — Picking and packing cherries. 



PICKING 



295 




Sweet cherries, when grown for the market, are commonly 
harvested just before they ripen. In the home orchard 
they may be left until ready to eat. When the weather 
is extremely warm and moist, it is better to harvest the 
fruit before it is perfectly ripe rather than to run the risk 
of destruction from rot. 

Peaches are of finest quality when allowed to become 
fully ripe upon the tree, but in the commercial orchard 
they should be picked 
when they are of full 
size, of good color, and 
show the first signs of 
ripening. Fruit growers 
test the ripeness of the 
fruit by pressing it gently 
with the ball of the 
thumb. If it feels elastic, 
it is ready to ship. 

Early white-flesh varieties are especially subject to rot, 
and early picking of these is often advisable. 

The success of harvesting depends as much upon the 
care in picking as upon the time. Any bruise or rupture 
of the skin which softens the flesh causes the fruit to decay. 
Carelessness in picking often does not become apparent 
until the fruit ripens. Fruit should not be thrown, tossed, 
or handled in a careless manner. It should be carefully 
picked by hand. Stemmed fruit should be separated 
from the spur or branch by slightly twisting or bending 
it upward, being careful to preserve a perfect stem. In 
picking cherries, grapes, and strawberries the fruit should 
not be touched, but it should be picked by the stem. 
Peaches are picked by giving the fruit a slight twist. 



Fig. 158. 



Peaches as packed in New Jersey 
for market. 



296 THINNING AND HAR\ESTING FRUIT 

The fruit grower should not allow pickers to climb the 
trees. Peaches, plums, and many of the other trees should 
be grown to such a form that the larger portion of the crop 
may be harvested from the ground. When ladders are 
necessary, they should be constructed of light durable 
material and made in such a form as to be most easily 
handled. Long basswood ladders, built in the form of an 
inverted V, are light and may be pushed easily between 
the branches. Stepladders built with a one-legged brace 
stand up better on uneven ground than those with two 
legs. Some growers prefer a basket or pail as a receptacle, 
others prefer a canvas sack. There is danger of bruising 
fruit by dropping it carelessly into the basket, while with 
the sack, a careless picker rubs the fruit against the ladder. 
Care should be exercised in emptying these receptacles. 
The contents should not be poured roughly into the box 
or barrel, but the fruit should be allowed to roU out 
gently. 

Grading. — For the most successful packing of fruit 
there is nothing more essential than proper grading. Size, 
color, and freedom from blemish are all essential in making 
the grades. Large and medium sized fruit should not be 
placed in the same package, or highly colored fruit with 
that which is poorly colored. Although medium-sized 
fruit sells well when placed in a package by itself, it gener- 
ally becomes second-grade fruit when placed in a package 
with larger specimens. Grading, therefore, results in getting 
better prices for the large fruit and just as good prices for 
that of medium size as if mixed together. 

The market grades of fruits are variously designated. 
The choicest fruit is marked " choice," " select," or 
''fancy," and the second-grade stock ''first," "A i," or 



PACKING 



2Q7 




Fig. 159. — Packing apples. Most of the apples in the Northern States are sorted 
and packed in barrels in the orchard and shipped directly to the cities. 



simply "A." Some growers call their best stock '' 3X," 
their seconds " 2X," and their third " X." Others brand 
their third quaHty stock as " seconds " or " A " brand. 

Packing. — Whatever form of container is used in 
fruit packing, it should be clean, light, durable, and 
cheap. 

Apples are commonly packed in barrels and although 
the size of the apple barrel varies in the several states, the 
general method of packing is the same. The first two 
tiers placed in the barrel are faced ; that is, placed in regu- 
lar rows with the stems downward. These should be of 
uniform size and color and typical of the remainder of the 
fruit in the barrel. Starting on the outside of the barrel, 
they are placed in concentric rings, and those of the second 



298 THINNING AND HARVESTING FRUIT 

tier are placed in the depressions of those of the first tier. 
The fruit is then carefully placed in the barrel, shaking 
it frequently to settle it well until the barrel is filled to 
within a few inches of the top. Then the top is faced with 
one or two tiers the same as the bottom. The head is placed 
over the fruit and with a barrel press it is forced down 
into place. The hoops are driven down and nailed. 
Liners or cleats are then nailed down against the inside 
of the staves at right angles to the grain of the head to 
strengthen it. 

Apples packed in boxes must be sorted carefully as to 
size. The method of packing depends so much upon the 
form and size of the fruit that it is only by experience that 
one can tell the style of pack best adapted to the par- 
ticular fruit at hand. 

Storing. — Only good fruit will pay for storage. Second- 
grade stock seldom keeps well. Wormy, scabby, or care- 
lessly handled fruit decays rapidly. Fruit should be placed 
in storage as soon as possible after harvesting. The com- 
mon practice of allowing apples to lie on the ground in the 
orchard to sweat for a few days after picking spoils their 
storage value. Small packages, as barrels, crates, or boxes, 
are best for storing fruit, as they can be cooled off rapidly 
and will not heat under such conditions. 

Fruit may be stored in any building in which the tem- 
perature, ventilation, and moisture can be controlled. The 
nearer the temperature is to freezing, the slower is the rip- 
ening process. Most fruit is stored at a temperature of 
from 33° to 35°. Slight freezing will not necessarily injure 
fruit if the temperature is raised slowly, but there is no 
advantage in this practice. Fruits lose their quality if 
the storage room is not properly ventilated. Good venti- 



EXERCISES 



299 




Fig. 160. — Apple storehouse on a Michigan fruit farm. 



lation is just as essential as low temperature. A uniform 
amount of moisture also is important. Fruits decay rap- 
idly in damp air, while if the air is too dry, the fruit becomes 
withered. 

EXERCISES 

1 . Is thinning practiced in your locality ? 

2. Will the height of the tree tops have any bearing on the 
advisability of thinning ? In what way ? 

3. Explain why fruit picked green will keep longer than 
ripened fruit. Is this fact made use of in the commercial 
markets? In what way? In what way does cold storage 
promote the same end? 

4. Why is ventilation necessary to stored fruits ? 

5. What sort of cellar is best fitted for fruit storage? What 
conditions of your home cellar might be changed to make it 
conform to the ideal conditions for storage ? 

6. Visit two or three places in your town where apples are 
sold, and find out what packages are most used. On how 
many packages of fruit (grapes, oranges, lemons, bananas, 
etc.) do you find the label of the packers or shippers? 



300 IHINNlNCr AND HARVESTING FRUIT 

7. What laws are there governing the packing and labeling 
of state and interstate shipments of apples ? Of other fruit ? 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Go to a barrel or bin of apples in the cellar and pick 
out 25 specimens that have started to decay. Note the num- 
ber of those in which rot seems to have started from a bruise 
in the skin inflicted in harvesting ; of those in which rot seems 
to have started at the stem where the stem has been pulled out 
in harvesting ; of those in which rot seems to have started in 
an insect bite or worm hole; and those that show no bruises 
on the surface. Calculate the percentage of apples rotting 
from careless handling at harvesting time. What does this 
teach you regarding the care that should be taken in harvesting 
apples ? 

2. Take the four trees that were sprayed as directed in the 
previous chapter, and carry out the following experiment with 
them. Thin one to about 3 inches, one to about 4 inches, 
another to 5 inches, leaving the last without thinning. Note 
effect on size and quality of fruit. 



CHAPTER X 
THE POMES — APPLES, PEARS, AND QUINCES 

Apples. — The apple is the most important American 
fruit. The wide variation in the time of maturity of the 
several varieties and the long storage season of the fruit 
make the apple available throughout the greater portion 
of the year. Its easy transportation makes it the most 
widely known and most widely used of all fruits, while the 
productiveness and longevity of the trees make the apple 
a most profitable fruit to grow. 




Fig. i6i. — An apple tree that has produced twelve barrels of fruit in one year. 

301 



302 THE POMES 

Propagation. — It is commonly known that cultivated 
varieties of apples seldom come true from seed. Seedlings 
of large red apples may produce small yellow fruit. The 
fruit grower desires to know definitely the kind of fruit 
that he is to grow. To perpetuate standard varieties, 
therefore, it is necessary to resort to some form of grafting. 
In mild climates apples are usually propagated by budding 
while in other less favorable sections they are propagated 
somewhat more successfully by root grafting. 







MmS 


^g 1 ^^Bk^^- 


.-W^^^^^^^k^^:^ 



Fig. 162. — An ideal orchard site. The slope to the lake provides good soil and air 

drainage. 

Planting. - Apples are grown upon various types of 
soils, although a deep, open, well-drained clay loam is con- 
sidered best. Orchards upon less favorable soils require 
more careful management. When the soil is of a light, 
sandy nature the trees come into bearing earlier and the 
fruit is often more highly colored, but the trees are seldom 
so long lived. 

Apple trees are set in the orchard at from one to three 
years of age, the younger trees being preferred. The dis- 
tance of planting varies with the variety and the locality. 
Apple trees are usually planted from thirty to forty feet 



PLANTING 



303 




304 THE POMES 

apart. The large-growing varieties, like the Baldwin and 
Greening, require the greater distance. The necessity for 
plenty of sunlight and air, for thorough cultivation, and 
for spraying makes wider plantings advisable. 

The planting is usually done in the spring, especially 
where winters are severe. In some sections fall planting 
is preferred. When the trees are set in the fall on well 
prepared and thoroughly drained land, they become estab- 
lished before winter sets in, and start to grow in the spring 
as soon as weather conditions are favorable. This enables 
them to produce a strong growth before the hot, dry sum- 
mer overtakes them. 

The soil should be plowed, cultivated, and prepared as 
thoroughly as for corn. If trees are set in sod land a hole 
five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree. No grass 
should be allowed to grow in this space and it should be kept 
cultivated or mulched with straw. On well-cultivated 
land, the holes are dug large enough only to accommodate 
the roots ; and the trees are set as directed in an earlier 
chapter. It is better to err in getting the trees a little too 
deep than not deep enough. 

Varieties. — There is no " best variety " for all sections. 
It is a safe plan to select the standard varieties that are 
best adapted to each particular section. The principal 
^^arieties grown in the apple-growing regions of America 
include the Baldwin, Northern Spy, Greening, Winesap, 
Jonathan, Mcintosh, Grimes Golden, Oldenburg, King, 
Wealthy, Wagner, Ben Davis, Gano, Spitzenburg, and 
Tolman Sweet. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation should begin as soon as the 
trees are planted. It is a common practice to grow corn, 
potatoes, beans, or some other cultivated crop in the 



PRUNING 305 

orchard during the first few years. Grain crops, as oats, 
wheat, or rye, should never be grown except as cover 
crops ; and after the trees come into bearing intercrop- 
ping should not be practiced as all the moisture and food 
of the soil is required for the best development of the 
fruit. 

Pears. — Pears thrive in the Northeastern States and 
along the Pacific slope. They succeed best in localities 
characterized by moderate winter seasons and rather cool, 
moist summers. They grow well on a variety of soils, 
but prefer a rather stiff clay loam. 

F*ropagation and Planting. — Pears are propagated in 
much the same manner as apples. They are usually 
planted at two years of age, although some growers prefer 
one-year-old trees. The land should be prepared the same 
as for apples and the trees planted in early spring. The 
trees are spaced from sixteen to twenty feet apart each 
way, depending upon variety, locality, and general form 
to be produced. Pears come into bearing earher than 
apples and produce paying crops in a much shorter 
period. Although pears thrive best with thorough till- 
age, there is much danger of serious injury from bhght 
when too vigorous a growth is produced. The most 
careful growers fertihze sparingly and till judiciously. 

Pruning. — Pears generally require more pruning than 
apples. Most of the varieties have a tendency to pro- 
duce all their growth in the upper central shoots and hence 
the first few years the pruning should consist in shorten- 
ing all of these upper shoots. Pears are very subject to 
sun scald, and therefore the tops should be started very 
low, usually not more than two feet from the ground, and 
should receive annual, but moderate pruning. Heavy 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 20 



3o6 THE POMES 

pruning not only invites sun scald, but tends to induce 
too strong and rank a growth. After the top of the pear 
tree is formed, it is customary to do little pruning except 
to keep the top free and open. As pears are borne on spurs 
much like the apple, it is important in pruning that these 
spurs are not removed unless it is desired to thin the 
fruit. 

Varieties. — Many pears produce infertile blossoms, 
that is, they need the pollen of other varieties to cause 
them to set fruit. In planting a pear orchard, it is, there- 
fore, customary to plant not more than four consecutive 
rows of one variety and to alternate with one or more rows 
of another variety that blossoms at the same time and 
produces an abundant supply of pollen. Some of the more 
important commercial varieties of pears are the Bartlett, 
Flemish Beauty, Clapp, Anjou, Bosc, Kieffer, Sheldon, 
Seckel, and Le Conte. Of these varieties, the Bartlett is 
the leading market pear, while the Kieffer being less sus- 
ceptible to bhght than most others, is used principally as 
a canning pear. 

Quinces. — The quince is a fruit of comparatively Kttle 
commercial importance. The fruit is used largely for 
preserving, for marmalades, for jelHes, and for flavoring 
sauces made from other fruits. Its culture has reached 
its highest development in the Northeastern States and on 
the Pacific coast. 

Enemies of the Pomes. — The principal insects that 
injure the pome fruits are the codling moth, San Jose scale, 
apple maggot, and apple curculio. Those that injure the 
foKage are the tent caterpillar, cankerworm, webworm, 
plant Hce, and leaf rollers. Those injuring the trunk and 
branches are the San Jose scale and apple tree borers. 



ENEMIES OF THE POMES 



307 




3o8 



THE POMES 



Among the common diseases of the pomes, the apple 
scab, bitter rot, brown rot, and pink rot affect the fruit, 
while the apple scab and lire blight injure the foliage and 
young twigs. There are also various forms of cankers 
that injure the branches. The most serious disease of 
the pear is the fire bhght. 

Spraying. — Although the insects and diseases of the 
apple and pear vary with the locality they can be controlled 
by spraying as outlined in the chapter on Fruit Pests. 

EXERCISES 

1. Why are younger trees better for transplanting than 
older ones? What is the function of the root hairs? In 
what way is this related to transplanting? 

2. Name the best summer, fall, and winter varieties of 
apples growing in your section. 

3. Obtain specimens of five different varieties of apples 
grown in your locality. If possible get three apples of each 
variety and make observations of the points indicated 
below. 



\ariety 



Number of 
Specimens 


Color 


Form 


Average 
Circum- 
ference 


Quality 











Value 



4. Obtain a branch from an apple tree and draw to natural 
size. Label the annual rings, fruit spur, fruit scar, fruit bud, 
leaf bud, and leaf scar. Show with a dotted Une where the twig 
should be cut to form a scion. 

5. Obtain three or four plates of apples of five specimens 
each, and score according to the following score card. 



HOME PROJECT 309 

SCORE CARD 
Form 

Characteristic of variety 5 

Uniformity in form 10 

Size 

Good for variety 10 

Uniformity in size 15 

Color 

Good for variety 10 

Uniformity in color 20 

Freedom from blemish, worm holes, scab, San Jose scale, 

mechanical bruises, broken stem 30 

Total 100 

HOME PROJECT 

Make an orchard survey of the varieties of apples grown in 
your section, by visiting at least six bearing orchards. Tabu- 
late observations as directed by teacher. Judging from the 
results of this survey, what do you conclude are the best va- 
rieties for your section? 



CHAPTER XI 

STONE FRUITS " PEACHES, PLUMS, AND 
CHERRIES 

Peaches. — The production of peaches is attended with 
greater risk than that of most other fruits. The peach 
is tender in bud and therefore very susceptible to severe 
freezing during the winter and to late freezes following a 
prolonged warm spell in the early spring. Late frosts while 
the trees are in blossom ruin many crops. In the Northern 
States the peach-growing areas lie near large bodies of 
water where the temperature is considerably moderated 
by the water. 

It is important to select sites that have good soil drain- 
age and air drainage. On high ridges, ideal sites are found. 
Usually a sandy loam soil is desired, although excellent 
crops are also produced upon clay soils. A clover sod 
that has been previously manured and plowed under is 
good for a peach orchard. The trees should be planted 
early in the spring rather than in the fall, as there is danger 
of winter injury to fall plantings. The trees are set from 
twenty to twenty-five feet apart and even at this distance 
heading in and shortening the branches is frequently neces- 
sary, after the trees come into bearing, to permit space for 
spraying, cultivation, and maintaining the orchard. 

Planting. — The following general rules should be ob- 
served in planting peach trees : 

I . Preserve as many of the fibrous roots as possible. 

310 



PRUNING 



311 



2. Expose the roots as little as possible to the drying 
influences of the sun and wind. 

3. Prepare the roots for planting by cutting away the 
bruised and broken portions. 

4. Plant an inch or two deeper than the tree stood in 
the nursery. If the soil is very sandy, the tree may be 
planted three or four inches deeper. 

5. Dig the hole in which the tree is to be planted deep 
enough to receive two or three inches of fine soil before 
putting the tree in place, and make it large enough to allow 
the roots to spread in their natural position without 
crowding. 

6. See that good friable surface soil is well packed be- 
neath and over the roots. 

Pruning. — After planting, peaches should be pruned to 
reestablish the natural balance between the top and root 
system and to form a well-shaped tree. The spur and the 




Fig. 165. — Peach trees with high tops ; result of setting trees too close together 



312 STONE FRUITS 




Fig. i66. — A fine example of a low-headed peach tree. 

stub systems are the two principal methods of pruning 
peach trees. If the lateral branches are well distributed 
along the trunk at the desired height, the spur system is 
used. Otherwise the tree is pruned to a stub and a new 
top formed. 

Pruning is practiced annually thereafter by removing all 
the weaker shoots, pruning out the central branches to 
maintain an open center, and frequently cutting back 
from a third to a half of the growth of the remaining 
branches. The degree of heading back depends largely 
upon the variety, vigor, and productiveness of the tree. 

Cultivation. — Peaches need even more thorough and 
regular cultivation than apples. After the trees come 
into bearing, they require abundant fertilizers. Cover 
cropping with leguminous plants is advantageous, as it 
causes the tree to mature its wood for the winter and 
supplies organic matter to the soil. 

Peaches have a tendency to produce excessive crops. 
These crops, if allowed to mature on the tree, frequently 
break the branches and seldom produce individual fruits of 
sufficient size to satisfy a first-class market. Pruning is 



VARIETIES 



3^3 



frequently practiced as a thinning process, but in addition 
to this, hand thinning is often necessary. 

Varieties. — The Elberta is the standard market variety 
in most of the Northern States. Its productiveness, hardi- 
ness, and general characteristics make it a most profitable 
commercial variety. St. Johns, New Prolific, Triumph, 
Engle's Mammoth, Alexander, Greensborough, Gold Drop, 
Smock, and Lemon Free are other important varieties. 

Plums. — Plums are an important commercial fruit, 
especially in localities where the climate is too rigorous for 
peach production. Large quantities of plums are canned, 
and in many sections the fruit of one class is dried for 
prunes. In seasons when the peach crop is short, the de- 
mand for plums is correspondingly increased. 

Varieties. — There are probably more species of plums 
grown in this country than of any other fruit. The Euro- 
pean plum is best known in the Eastern States, although 



> , . .', 




■BBBr^BrMTTmrflBSlnM^SF ' **« 


'C^ >^ ^ 


^PPI 


"'^5' 


"'^^aiMlM^^ft i^^lMMV^H. 


k 



Fig. 167. 



A plum orchard on an ideal site. The well-cultivated ground slopes off 
to the lake. 



314 STONE FRUITS 

the Japanese plums are also widely grown. In sections 
of the country where the conditions are too severe for either 
the Japanese or European species, the American or wild 
plum proves very valuable. The Wild Goose plum is also 
an important species, especially adapted to southern Iowa, 
Missouri, southern Illinois, and adjacent sections. The 
Chicasaw plums are native of the Southern States and grow 
wild from Delaware south and west to Kansas and Texas. 

Soil and Cultural Conditions. — The plum demands a 
heavier soil than the peach ; usually a moderately heavy 
clay loam is most desirable. On lighter soils, the trees are 
very subject to injury from prolonged dry spells during 
the summer. Under such conditions the fruit is small 
and the trees short-lived. Trees from one to three years 
of age are selected for planting, many planters preferring 
a one-year-old tree, as at that age they are cheaper, easier 
to plant, and produce better formed trees. They may be 
set from sixteen to twenty-five feet apart, depending much 
upon the soil and variety. As many of the varieties are 
generally self-sterile, especially in certain locations, it is 
important to interplant them with strong, pollenizing 
varieties that blossom at the same time. Even self- 
fertihzing varieties seem to produce better crops when 
cross-pollinated. 

With certain varieties of plums, thinning is very im- 
portant. It is one method of controlUng the fruit rot and 
of producing profitable crops. Damsons and other small 
plums are not thinned, but the larger varieties often must 
be thinned to produce large, highly colored fruit. The 
orchard should be cultivated and cover-cropped as with 
the apple and peach. Although the plum will thrive better 
in sod land than the peach, better crops will be produced 



SOIL AND CULTURAL METHODS 



315 



and less injury from fungous diseases will result if the 
orchard is kept in a clean, cultivated condition. 

Cherries. — The commercial production of cherries is 
more restricted than that of most other fruits. This is 
especially true of the 
sweet cherries, there 
being but few sections 
east of the Rocky 
Mountains where 
the soil and climatic 
conditions are favor- 
able. The production 
of sour cherries has 
become one of the 
leading industries in 
the humid regions of 
the Middle West. 

Soil and Cultural Methods. — Sweet cherries thrive best 
on an elevated, light, dry, loamy soil, while the sour kinds 
will endure more moist climatic conditions and a heavier 
soil. 

Spring planting of trees is usually practiced. The sweet 
varieties are set thirty to forty feet apart each way, while 
the sour kinds are set from sixteen to twenty feet. In 
pruning, three to five main branches about three feet from 
the ground are allowed to remain to form the framework 
of the tree. As the sweet cherries have a very upright 
habit of growth, it is important to prune the lateral branches 
back to outside buds for a few years to induce a spreading 
rather than an upright form. The framework branches of 
the sour cherry are formed like those of the peach tree. 
Cherries are very subject to gummosis, a disease which is 




68. — A well-formed Windsor cherry tree. 



3i6 



STONE I'RUITS 



characterized by the formation of large bunches of gum on 
the bark. Trees that are formed with the main branches 
opposite or near together on the trunk are especially sub- 
ject to this disease. 

Cherry orchards are plowed shallow in the early spring 
and cultivated every ten days or after every rain until 

midsummer, when they 
are seeded to cover crops. 
With sweet cherries, 
there is danger of over- 
feeding, as the tree nat- 
urally produces a very 
rank growth. Hence it 
is often better to grow a 
cover crop of non-legumi- 
nous plants and to with- 
hold nitrogenous ma- 




Fig. 169. A steep slope utilized as a cherry 
orchard. Note the furrows to prevent soil 
wash. 



nures. 

Harvesting. - Cherries should be hand picked a few 
days before ripening. Special shears are sometimes used 
for cutting the stems, the fruit being allowed to drop on 
sheets which have been previously spread under the tree. 
With the finer varieties more care should be exercised. 
All small and imperfect fruits should be sorted out and 
the cherries faced and packed into small attractive boxes 
or baskets. Small cartons holding a pound or more of 
fruit are often used in preparing fancy packages for special 
markets. Care should be exercised against breaking the 
fruit spurs, as a careless picker may. in this way, do much 
injury to the next year's crop. 

Insects and Diseases. — The stone fruits are very sus- 
ceptible to injury from insects and diseases. The peach 



EXERCISES 317 

tree borer, San Jose scale, plum curculio, aphis, and tent 
caterpillar are the most common insects, while peach 
yellows, " little peach," brown rot, leaf curl black knot, 
peach scab, and shot-hole fungus are the most important 
diseases of these fruits. 

In controlling these insects and diseases, the trees should 
be sprayed as directed in a previous chapter. Early in the 
spring the trees should be carefully inspected and all 
black knots should be cut out several inches below the 
knots. 

EXERCISES 

1. To what class of fruits does the peach belong? 

2. Can peaches be profitably grown in your section ? Why? 

3. How long does it take a peach tree to come into bearing 
after planting ? 

4. If peaches are grown in your section, name some of the 
best varieties. 

5. Obtain two or three quarts of peach pits and arrange 
in a box in alternate layers of pits and clean sand so as to show 
how they are stratified in actual practice. Remove the pits 
and save them for further work. 

6. Get twigs of two different varieties of plums, preferably 
two varieties growing in your neighborhood. Take from the 
twigs one flower bud and one leaf bud. Pick them to pieces. 
By close examination determine how to distinguish a flower bud 
from a leaf bud. 

7. Obtain, if possible, specimens of the plum curculio. 
Note the six humps on the back, four real humps and two semi- 
humps. Note also the snout of this beetle. 

8. Examine plums or apples for puncture of the plum cur- 
culio. Note the dot and the crescent around it. 

9. If there are cherry orchards in your home locaHty, de- 
scribe the methods of orchard management. 



3i8 STONE FRUITS 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Visit four commercial peach orchards and note in each : 

(a) The number of trees of each variety in each orchard. 

(b) Age and condition of each orchard. 

(c) System of culture. 

(d) Method of pruning. 

(e) Materials and times of spraying. 

(/) Number of trees infected with borers, 
(g) Number showing signs of peach yellows, ''little peach," 
leaf curl, or other diseases. 

(h) Number in which the fruit is hand thinned. 
(i) Cover crop used. 

2. With four bearing plum trees of the same variety, age, 
and general conditions, test the value of pruning, thinning, and 
spraying. 



CHAPTER XII 
GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, AND BUSH FRUITS 

Grapes. — Although grapes may be grown on favored 
sites in many parts of the United States, there are only a 
few sections of the country where their production has 
developed into a leading industry. The Northeastern 
States and the Pacific States are the two most important 
grape-growing sections. Most of the leading commercial 
varieties of the Northeastern States are of the native 
species. West of the Rocky Mountains varieties of the 
European species are chiefly grown. 

Propagation. — The grape is generally propagated from 
either hardwood cuttings or layers. In California, Euro- 
pean varieties are often grafted upon American roots. 
One-year or two-year-old plants from cuttings are used for 
setting the vineyard. Where only a few plants are desired, 
layering is the simplest and easiest method of producing 
new plants. 

Soil and Cultural Methods. — Grapes demand a long 
season for the development of the crop. The vines blossom 
early in the spring and the fruit ripens comparatively late 
in the fall. Hence, it is desirable to select a piece of land 
for the vineyard that has sufficient slope to provide good 
air and soil drainage and that is subject to neither late frosts 
nor early freezes. For these reasons, a sloping site exposed 
to the south and east is preferred. In sections bordering 
large bodies of water that exercise a moderating influence 

319 



320 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 



upon the climate, exposure is not so important. For grapes, 
the ideal soil is a sandy loam with an open clay subsoil, 
but they may be grown upon any soil of moderate fertility 
and fair texture having good drainage. On soil that is 
too rich in nitrogen, the fruit is likely to be of poor flavor 
and the vines unproductive. 

Grapes are planted in the spring in rows about ten feet 
apart and the vines eight to ten feet apart in the row, de- 
pending much upon the vigor of the variety. The land, 
after being plowed and cultivated, is furrowed out one 

way and marked the 
other, the intersection 
showing the position 
of each plant. This 
greatly facilitates the 
planting. The roots 
of the plants may be 
cut back to twelve 
inches in length and the tops pruned back to two or 
three buds. As soon as the vines are planted, the vine- 
yard should be cultivated and some hoed crop grown for 
the first few years. After this time, the plants will require 
the entire space and the vineyard should be regularly 
cultivated and cover cropped. 

Pruning. — Pruning is performed to get the most high- 
grade fruit from the least amount of vine and to maintain 
the plant so that profitable crops may be produced for 
many years. It must be remembered that the old wood 
that has once borne fruit never bears again, and that if 
all the new wood produced on the vines is left, it will bear 
a great many more clusters than it can properly develop. 
Pruning is practiced as a thinning process, thus concen- 




Fig. 170. 



A pruned grape vine (A), and an 
unpruned vine (B). 



PRUNING 



321 




Fig. 171. — A California vineyard. Note the trays on which the grapes are placed as 
they are gathered. 

M. AND H, PL.AXT PROD. — 21 



32 2 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 

trating the energy of the plant into a few well-developed 
clusters. The fruit of the grape is borne upon canes of the 
present season's growth, which are produced from buds 
on canes of the past season's growth. The spur system, 
which simply consists in the pruning back of each cane of 
the past season's growth to one or two buds, is the simplest 
system and probably the most common method of pruning. 

The renewal system is generally practiced by the com- 
mercial growers of our native species. Four of the past 
year's canes are retained. Each of these is pruned part 
way back, leaving from six to ten buds on each. Two 
of these are trained upon the upper wire about five feet 
from the ground and two upon the lower about three feet 
from the ground. The buds upon these canes produce the 
new shoots that bear the fruit. 

The grape should be pruned either during the late winter 
or very early spring, as injury may be caused by pruning 
in late spring after the sap has begun to flow. Some- 
times summer pruning is practiced, which consists in cutting 
back some of the most vigorous canes, rubbing off all 
suckers that have started from the base of the roots, 
and pinching off the side shoots of the canes that are to 
be reserved for the following year. 

Insects and Diseases. — The black rot is the most 
serious fungous disease of the grape, although the downy 
mildew and the powdery mildew are also often injurious. 
The grape cane borer, the flea beetle, the rose chafer, the 
grape berry moth, the leaf hopper, and the phylloxera, or 
root louse, are destructive insects of this fruit. 

The grape rot appears as brown, circular, decayed spots 
on the berries, which soon spread over the entire fruit. 
Infected berries soon shrivel and turn black. The downy 



SPRAYING 323 

mildew is a fungous disease causing brownish white patches 
on the under surface of the leaves. It sometimes attacks 
the fruit as does the black rot, but the infected fruit turns 
red rather than black. Delaware and other hybrid varie- 
ties are. most susceptible to the mildew. The powdery 
mildew is most common in hot, dry weather, covering the 
surfaces of the leaves or fruit and giving them a gray or 
powdery appearance. 

The phylloxera, or root louse, is not a serious insect on 
the American varieties, but upon the European varieties 
it is one of the most dreaded and destructive of all insects. 
Grafting these varieties on our native stocks is the best 
preventive. Sometimes the grape cane borer proves very 
destructive, attacking the young shoots in the spring and 
causing them to droop suddenly or break off entirely. To 
control this insect, all diseased wood and prunings should 
be promptly burned. Injured shoots should also be cut 
off and burned at once. The rose chafer and leaf hopper 
are the most difficult insects to control upon the grape. 
Spraying with tobacco extracts is probably the most effi- 
cacious remedy. Clean cultivation and the destruction of 
all leaves, grass, and other debris in the neighborhood that 
might make a harboring place over winter for these insects 
will help to prevent them . The leaf hopper feeds early in the 
season upon the strawberry and bush fruits, hence these 
fruits should be grown some distance from the vineyard. 

Spraying. — If fruit free from rot, mildew, and other 
fungous diseases is desired, spraying must be practiced 
regularly. When the shoots are from eight to ten inches 
long the vines should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture 
to prevent the black rot and downy mildew. The vines 
should be sprayed again, just before the blossoms open, with 



324 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 

the same mixture, to which two pounds of arsenate of lead 
has been added to poison the grape berry moth. The 
third spraying should be applied just as the blossoms are 
falling, and another about two weeks later. It may be 
necessary to make another spraying later with the same 
mixture. If it becomes necessary to spray after this time 
to control the rot, weak copper sulphate should be used in 
preference to the Bordeaux mixture, as the latter will stain 
the fruit. 

Strawberries. — The strawberry is one of the most 
popular of American fruits and hence the supply is seldom 
equal to the demand. Strawberries are propagated by the 
separation of runners produced by the plants. New varie- 
ties are produced from seedlings, but it is seldom that new 
seedlings prove of superior value to the standard varieties. 
Most varieties produce an abundance of runners which are 
attached to the old plant the first season. These are the 
plants that should be selected for setting a new patch. 
Old plants are not desirable. 

Soil and Cultural Methods. — Strawberries may be 
grown successfully on almost any soil. A sandy loam soil 
is preferred, but good crops are produced upon any soil 
that is good enough for corn. For early fruit, a southern 
slope is best, but a northern slope is most desirable, as this 
plant requires cool, moist conditions for its best develop- 
ment. For this reason, also, strawberries should be planted 
very early in the spring, so that the cool, moist weather 
may encourage a strong development of the plant before 
the warm, dry period of midsummer overtakes them. Sod 
land should be avoided, as the white grubs, so destructive 
to strawberry plants, are most prevalent there. The plants 
are usually dug just before setting and the older and dis- 



SOIL AND CULTURAL METHODS 



325 



eased leaves removed. It is important, in transplanting, 
to shield the roots from the sun and wind, hence they are 
usually carried in a pail of water or in a basket covered 
with moist cloth. 

If the strawberry plant is set too deep, the soil washes 
over the crown and kills it, while if set too shallow, the soil 
will soon settle away from the roots, leaving many of them 
exposed to the sun. If the soil is light and sandy, there is 




Fig. 172. — Strawberries planted between the rows in a young orchard. 

less danger in planting too deep, but even under these con- 
ditions it is better to set the plant in such a manner that 
the crown will be level with the top of the soil after it has 
settled. 

There are several systems of training strawberries. The 
system used will depend much upon the variety and de- 
mands of the market. The matted-row system is the 
most common. Here the plants are set about eighteen 
inches apart in the rows with the rows three to four feet 
apart. The new runners are allowed to set wherever they 



326 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 

will, with the result that at the end of the first season, 
nearly all the space between the rows is covered with plants. 




Fig. 173. An excellent stand of strawberry plants on the matted-row system. 

Under this system the production is usually the heaviest, 
and less care is demanded in training and caring for the 
plants. 

The hedge system is often most desirable where a special 
market is at hand and good prices may be obtained for 
first-class berries. The fruit is usually larger and more 
uniform in size although not so many quarts are produced 
per acre. Greater care is also necessary in training the 
plants. In starting this system the plants are set in rows 
about two and a half feet apart and the plants eighteen 
inches apart in the rows. Each plant is then allowed to 
produce two runners, one each way of the row. All other 
runners are cut away. Sometimes a double-hedge system 
is used, which increases the production per acre. Here 
two such rows are planted six to ten inches apart and with 
a space of two and a half feet between each double row. 



CULTIVATION 327 

Sometimes strawberries are grown on the hill system. 
The plants are set eighteen inches to two feet apart each 
way and no runners are allowed to set about the plants. 
They may then be cultivated each way, and strong, vigor- 
ous crowns will be produced. Under this system, the largest 
and finest berries may be produced, but the production is 
so much smaller on any given area that it seldom proves a 
desirable commercial system. 

Cultivation. — The strawberry is a very shallow-rooted 
plant, and since it thrives under cool, moist conditions, 
frequent shallow cultivations are required. When the 
plants are set on the matted-row system, it is advisable to 
cultivate each row always in the same direction. If not, 
the runners will be disturbed by the cultivator. Cultiva- 
tion must be continued until late fall, as the growth is very 
rapid and runners are produced very heavily during the 
late summer and fall. It is quite necessary that the patch 
be absolutely free from weeds when freezing weather 
finally stops the growth. 

Strawberries are generally mulched, in late fall or early 
winter after the ground has frozen, with clean straw free 
from weed seeds, or with marsh hay. This prevents the 
alternate freezing and thawing during late winter and early 
spring which tears the roots and kills the plants. This 
mulch is left on the patch until after the harvesting season, 
thus taking the place of cultivation the following spring. 
Generally, it is the practice of the growers to remove the 
straw slightly from the tops of the plants as soon as the 
growth begins in the spring. During the harvesting period, 
the straw about the base of the plants keeps the fruit clean 
and free from grit. 

Where strawberries are grown on a commercial scale, 



328 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 

the patch is plowed under immediately after harvesting 
and a new plantation is set out each spring. Sometimes a 
patch is allowed to bear for two seasons, but the produc- 
tion is not so heavy the second year. 

In fertilizing a strawberry patch, it is a practice to manure 
the field heavily the year before setting, growing some hoed 
crop. If additional fertilizing is necessary, commercial 
fertilizers are used at the time of planting. The following 
spring, shortly after the growth starts, nitrate of soda is 
applied at the rate of about 150 pounds per acre. This 
should be broadcasted while the foliage is dry to prevent 
burning. An ideal time to apply it is just before a rain. 
If the plants need a stimulus later in the season just 
before fruiting, a similar application should be given. 

Varieties. — In selecting varieties of strawberries, it is 
necessary to remember that some varieties are pistillate ; 
that is, they have no well-developed stamens and so are 
unable to pollenize themselves. These varieties, if planted 
alone, will seldom be fruitful. Pistillate varieties are often 
called imperfect varieties, while those varieties having strong 
stamens are called perfect or staminate varieties. In set- 
ting strawberries, it is the practice to set at least one row 
of a perfect sort to two rows of an imperfect sort. It is 
necessary, of course, that the two varieties blossom at the 
same time, so that the pollen of a perfect sort may be 
available when the imperfect varieties are in blossom. 
Perfect-flowering varieties, of course, may be planted 
alone. 

Insects and Diseases. — Strawberries are seldom troubled 
seriously by insects and diseases. By care in the selection 
of varieties, by rotation, and by good culture serious injury 
may be avoided. Leaf spot and mildew are the two 



SOIL AND CULTURAL METHODS 



329 



chief fungous diseases, while the white grub, leaf roller, and 
strawberry root louse are the principal injurious insects. 

Bush Fruits. — The bush fruits include the currants, 
gooseberries, blackberries, raspberries, and dewberries. 
They are more easily grown than most of the tree fruits 
and give greater yields and quicker returns. As the de- 




Fig. 174. — Spraying strawberries. 

mand for fresh bush fruits in the local markets is usually 
greater than the supply, they are profitable crops for the 
fruit grower. 

Soil and Cultural Methods for Currants and Goose- 
berries. — The ideal soil for currants and gooseberries is a 
rich, moist, rather heavy soil, although in the Northern 
States good yields are grown on lighter soils. There are 
probably no cultivated crops that respond more generously 
to manuring than these fruits. Much humus in the soil 
furnishes the richness, coolness, and moisture that they 
require. 



330 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 



Except in localities where the winters are very severe, 
fall planting is generally preferred. The plants then take 
hold early in the spring and become well established before 
the hot weather. If planted in the spring, they should be 
set out as early as possible. 

Currants and gooseberries are generally propagated by 
hardwood cuttings taken in late fall or early winter. One- 
year and two-year- 
old plants are used 
for setting. Some- 
times they are prop- 
agated by mound 
layering, but they 
root so readily from 
cuttings that layer- 
ing is seldom prac- 
ticed. 

Currants are usu- 
ally set four to six 
feet apart in the row 
with the rows from 
four to eight feet 
apart. Black cur- 
rants, being larger 
plants, require more 
space than red or white currants or gooseberries. As these 
plants are all shallow rooted, shallow cultivation should 
be given. It is necessary to cultivate regularly to pre- 
serve soil moisture. 

Pruning. — After the plants are set, Httle pruning is 
required during the first three seasons, except to thin out 
weak and crowding shoots and to head back over-vigorous 




Fig. 175- — Harvesting currants. Note crate and 
boxes used for shipping. 



HARVESTING 331 

ones. After this time, pruning should consist in cutting 
away a few of the oldest canes at the base each year, leav- 
ing a few of the vigorous young shoots from the roots to 




Fig. 176. — A well-kept gooseberry patch. 

take their places. The largest bunches of currants are 
grown at the base of one-year-old lateral shoots or on 
one-year-old spurs. Therefore, to get the highest quality 
of fruit, it is necessary to keep up a continuous supply of 
these vigorous shoots. The common mistake in pruning 
currants and gooseberries is to let the bushes remain too 
thick. 

Fertilizers. — Well-decomposed stable manure is the most 
popular fertilizer for these fruits. This may be spread 
around the bushes in the fall and worked into the soil in 
the spring. Unleached hardwood ashes are valuable, 
especially upon the stronger soils on which heavy applica- 
tions of manure would tend to produce too much wood. 

Harvesting. — Gooseberries and currants have a long 
harvesting season. The fruit may remain on the bushes 



332 GRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 

for several days without injury. Currants are usually 
picked by pinching off the bunches, keeping the berries 
perfect on the stems. Gooseberries are harvested by 
stripping the branches and afterwards running the fruit 
through a fanning machine to remove the leaves. 

Insects and Diseases. — The gooseberry mildew and 
leaf spot are two common fungous diseases, while the cur- 
rant worm, the currant borer, and the San Jose scale are 
the most injurious insects. 

The gooseberry mildew is especially troublesome upon 
the Enghsh varieties of gooseberries and is more prevalent 
in sections having a hot, dry climate. It appears as a cob- 
weblike growth on the young foliage, kilHng or checking 
its growth. The leaf spot appears as small brown spots 
that cause the leaves to turn yellow and drop. The 
bushes are often defoUated in midsummer by this disease, 
which seriously weakens the plant and prevents the for- 
mation of well-developed fruit buds for the following season. 

The small green worms found on the under side of the 
leaves of the currants are hatched from eggs laid by a small 
fly about the size of a house fly. The worms are first white, 
later becoming green with black spots, and finally becoming 
green tinged with yellow. They eat the leaves, often de- 
foliating the bush in two or three days. The currant borer 
is hatched from eggs laid near the tip of a shoot by a 
small moth. The worms burrow down the center of the 
shoot and give it a sickly appearance. 

Treatment. — Currants should be sprayed, early in the 
spring before the buds open, with strong lime-sulphur 
solution for the San Jose scale. Just as the leaves are 
expanding they should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture or 
dilute lime-sulphur solution, to which has been added 2 



SOIL AND CULTURAL METHODS 333 

pounds of arsenate of lead to every 50 gallons. This spray 
should be repeated when the fruit is about one fourth grown. 
If the currant worms are troublesome after this time, the 
foHage should be dusted with pyrethrum. 

If the foliage becomes suddenly wilted at any time, it 
indicates the presence of the cane borer. Cut out the 
affected shoots and burn. 

Brambles. — The brambles include the red raspberries, 
black raspberries, blackberries, and dewberries. 

Propagation. — Red raspberries produce numerous 
shoots from the roots, which are generally used for start- 
ing a new plantation. It is often customary, however, 
when there is a shortage of plants, to propagate them by root 
cuttings. The black raspberries (black caps) are usually 
propagated by tip layering. The high-bush blackberry is 
propagated by suckers and root cuttings, while the dew- 
berries may be multipHed by layering the new canes, which 
root readily in midsummer. 

Soil and Cultural Methods. — -The brambles prefer moist, 
cool growing conditions. It will be noticed that the 
brambles grow best in the wild, near the edge of woods 
or about decaying stumps, hence a northern exposure and 
a soil that contains plenty of humus and plant food is 
generally preferred. Brambles will grow on poorly drained 
soil, while on light soils, if properly handled, good crops 
may be produced. They are generally set in rows six to 
eight feet apart, with the plants from three to six feet apart 
in the rows. 

During the first season, frequent cultivation is necessary, 
unless mulching with straw or hay is practiced. Soil till- 
age is generally most practical as a means of preserving 
soil moisture, which is so essential to a vigorous growth 



334 



(IRAPES, STRAWBERRIES, BUSH FRUITS 



of the brambles. Tillage should cease about the hrst of 
August to ripen up the canes. At that time, a cover crop 
of rye, vetch, oats, or some other suitable crop may be sown. 




Fig. 177- — A sturdy row of blackberries in bloom. 

Pruning. — When the new canes are about two and a 
half to three feet high, the ends should be pinched off to 
induce branching. If these canes are allowed to grow, they 
become unmanageable and produce few lateral branches. 
Usually larger crops are produced from the branched canes, 
although in some locaH ties black raspberries and blackberries 
seem to produce more when they are not topped during the 
summer. Directly after harvesting, all of the old canes that 
have borne fruit should be cut close to the ground. This con- 
centrates the energy of the plants into the new canes which 
are to produce the crop the following season. Early in the 
spring, the plants should be pruned again and all small, 



VARIETIES 335 

weak canes should be cut out completely, leaving as many 
well-developed canes as the plant can properly maintain. 
The lateral branches should be cut back to strong, mature 
buds, the distance varying much with the variety and 
maturity of the wood. This pruning thins the fruit, thus 
permitting better development. 

Brambles usually bear a small crop the second year after 
planting and a full crop after that time. 

Varieties. — The blackberries and purple-cane rasp- 
berries usually produce the heaviest crops. The purple- 
cane raspberries are hybrids between the native red and 
the native black raspberry, and are especially desirable for 
canning. Their fruit is soft and of a rather dull color and 
hence not popular as a general market sort. When canned, 
however, the fruit assumes a very attractive color. The 
most popular varieties of the purple-cane raspberries are 
Shaffer and Columbian. Of the blackberries, the Snyder 
is one of the most cosmopolitan varieties although of com- 
paratively poor quality. The Early Wilson, Agawam, 
Eldorado, and Taylor are other important varieties, while 
of the black raspberries, the Plumb Farmer, Gregg, Cum- 
berland, Kansas, and Ohio are the most popular. Cuth- 
bert is the standard red raspberry and the Marlboro is also 
an important red variety. 

Dewberries are seldom an important commercial fruit. 
They ripen earHer than the blackberry. Although seldom 
a very profitable crop, they are grown to obtain the early 
market. They are cultivated the same as the blackberry, 
but the vines are trained either to a wire trellis or to a 
stake. The fruiting canes should be tied up each spring 
and the new canes allowed to sprawl over the ground. The 
Lucretia and Bartel are the most important varieties. 



33^ GRAPES, S'I'RAWBERRIKS, BUSH FRUITS 

EXERCISES 

1. How are grapes generally propagated? How are they 
propagated in your section? Give the climate and seasonal 
requirements of grapes. Is your summer long enough for them 
to mature? How many days in your summer season? What 
slope is preferred and why ? 

2. At what distance apart are grapes planted? How many 
plants can be set on an acre if the plants are set 8 feet by lo 
feet? At six cents a plant what would it cost to set out an 
acre of grapes? 

3. What injury is likely to result from late spring pruning 
of grapes? 

4. When and what spray should be appHed to grapes ? What 
diseases does it control ? 

5. Obtain three or more bunches of grapes and score the 
same, using the following score card. 

Score Card for Grapes 

Form of bunch 15 

Size of bunch 20 

Size of berry 20 

Color 10 

Flavor 15 

Freedom from blemish 20 

Total 100 

HOME PROJECT 

Select 100 young strawberry plants of two standard 
varieties. Plant half of each on the matted-row system 
and half on the double-hedgerow system. Cultivate, weed, 
and mulch, as directed in the text. Keep a record of the labor 
expended upon each and write a detailed description of each 
operation. 



CHAPTER XIII 
VEGETABLE GARDENING 

Vegetable gardening maybe grouped conveniently under 
the following divisions : home gardening, market garden- 
ing, truck gardening, and vegetable forcing. 

Home Gardening. — On every farm the vegetable garden 
occupies a position of importance as a source of food sup- 




Fig. 178. 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 



A typical school garden. 

22 ^n 



© Keystone Vlcu Co. 



338 



VEGETABLE OARDENINCi 



ply, while in the suburbs of the larger cities, as well as upon 
the home lot of the village dweller, its products are of even 
greater importance in supplying the home table. Mil- 
lions of dollars' worth of vegetables are annually produced 
by such gardeners, and their products constitute an impor- 
tant source of our food supply. 




A market garden should be near town. 



Market Gardening. — Market gardening refers to the 
intensive commercial culture of vegetable crops generally 
grown near the larger cities, where land values are high. 

Truck Gardening. — The growing of vegetable crops 
on an extensive scale is generally referred to as truck 
farming. Sections devoted to this kind of gardening 
are usually more distant from a market, where land values 
are less than where market gardening is practiced. Usually 
such crops as celery, tomatoes, and cabbage are grown which 
do not need such intensive culture as those produced by 
the market gardener. Very frequently, truck farming is 
restricted to the growing of one or two special crops, as 
the production of celery at Kalamazoo, Michigan, or of 



TRUCK GARDENIXC; 



339 




Fig. i8o. — Cultivating the home garden. 



340 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 



cantaloupes at Rocky Ford, Colorado. In many places, 
however, both market gardening and truck farming are 
practiced on the same farm. 

Vegetable Forcing. — This is the most intensive type of 
vegetable production. It is frequently combined with 
market gardening and necessitates the use of glass houses 
for starting the crops early or growing them entirely under 
glass. Vegetables may be forced in greenhouses, hotbeds, 
or cold frames. 

Selecting Varieties. — In producing vegetables for the 
home table, it should be the aim of the gardener to secure 

a uniform and con- 
stant supply. The 
kinds should be those 
preferred by the mem- 
bers of the family for 
whom they are grown. 
It is especially desir- 
able to produce as 
great a variety as pos- 
sible of the best and 
highest quality. Since 
the quality of vege- 
tables depends much 
upon the variety, in 
selecting them, one 
should remember that the important commercial varieties 
are not always the best for the home garden. 

Very frequently, varieties of high quahty are not good 
yielders or the best for shipping, and are, therefore, not 
the most profitable. In the commercial vegetable garden, 
earliness is also a most important character. The grower 




■'«3rv*^ir.*^' 



','*L^S«1*^ »J*- 



Fig. i8i. — A celery farm, Kalamazoo, Michigan. 



SOIL 341 

who is able to market his produce a few days ahead of his 
neighbor usually receives a much higher price. Early 
harvesting often enables the grower to prepare his land 
in time for a succeeding crop. ♦ 

Location. — The garden should constitute an attractive 
feature of the home grounds. It should be placed as near 
the dwelling as conditions will permit. Since vegetables 
must be cared for at odd times and gathered at frequent 
intervals, it should be convenient for these purposes. 

The location of a commercial garden is of no less im- 
portance. It is very desirable to be near a good market 
where the grower may keep in touch with the demand and 
deliver his product quickly at a minimum expense. 

Soil. — Sandy loams with porous subsoils are generally 
considered the most valuable for garden purposes. Wet 
land, unless it can be satisfactorily drained, should be 
avoided, as good crops cannot be produced upon poorly 
drained soil. As the market gardener fertilizes very heavily, 
the physical composition of the soil is of greater importance 
than the amount of plant food it contains. A few of the 
vegetable crops require special soils, although most of 
them may be grown upon all the good agricultural 
lands. 

A coarse, sandy soil is commonly regarded as a '' quick " 
soil, as it dries out and warms up early in the spring. 
Coarse sands, though they produce early maturity, require 
a larger amount of vegetable matter in the fertilizer. 
Medium sands though not early are more productive and 
retentive of moisture. The silt and clay soils are often 
preferred for late crops. The muck lands, since they re- 
quire less addition of plant food, are the most profitable 
in producing late-season crops. 



342 



X'EGETABLE GARDENING 



Climate. — Climatic conditions determine the value of 
a section for vegetable production. Localities having an 
early season can produce vegetables and place them upon 
the markets of the less favored regions at a good profit. 
Many sections of the South, because of favorable climate. 



^,-1 


"co 


"cc 


>c 


~s^ 






v. 


j 




■^^ 






~-c 






~-H 






~— c 


V 




■'.-t 


■".-1 


-rH 


"^ 


~-^ 


''-' 




1 


^'^ 1 



-Corn - 
Corn 
-Corn- 



-String Beans- 



Cucumbers 

— Peas 

— Tomatoes - 

— Spinach - 

— Cabbage - 
— Radish — 
— Celery — 

— Lettuce — 

— Parsnips— 
— Carrots — 
— Beets — 
— Onions — 
— Parsley — 



Fig. 182. — A garden plan. 

have developed into large trucking regions. Certain sec- 
tions of Michigan and New York annually produce celery 
because their moist, cool growing season proves especially 
favorable for- this crop. Onions are grown in the Con- 
necticut valley, peas in Wisconsin, potatoes in Maine, 
and cauliflower on Long Island because the climate of these 
sections is especially adapted to the production of such 
crops. 

Air drainage is as important in vegetable production as it 



PLANNING THE VEGETABLE GARDEN 



343 



is in fruit growing, especially in maturing crops for an early 
market. The necessity for irrigation is becoming more 
apparent. A constant and cheap water supply is a requi- 
site for this purpose. Good roads, good shipping faciU- 
ties, and a location where labor may be cheaply and readily 
obtained are other important factors. 

Planning the Vegetable Garden. — A well-thought-out 
plan is essential to success in vegetable gardening. The 
arrangement of the crops 
with reference to each 
other is of first impor- 
tance. Usually it is 
better to place the peren- 
nial vegetables together 
and arrange the other 
crops in such a manner 
that those grown about 
the same distance apart 
will be adjacent to each 
other. The garden should 
be arranged in such a 
manner as to economize 
labor. On the farm 
where plenty of land is 
available and labor 
scarce, the rows should be far enough apart to permit the 
use of a horse cultivator, but where the area is limited and 
close planting is necessary, the crops must be cultivated 
by hand. Since it is necessary in the market gardens to 
get as large returns as possible from a given area, com- 
panion cropping and succession cropping are practiced. In 
companion cropping, two or more crops are started on the 




Fig. 183. — Cultivating peppers growing be- 
tween rows of mature onions. 



344 VEGETABLE GARDENING 

land at the same time, one of these crops being removed 
before the other crop needs the entire space. For example, 
cabbage may be interplanted with lettuce, or radishes may 
be planted between rows of beets, carrots, or parsnips. 

The market gardener may start a crop on his land in 
early spring for early summer harvest and at that time 
start another crop to be harvested in the fall. In the 
Southern States, three crops are frequently grown in suc- 
cession. In the North, however, but two crops can be 
grown in this way. Market gardeners frequently plant 
beets, cabbages, and onions in early spring, harvesting 
them in July. The land is then planted to celery, which is 
harvested in the fall. Rutabagas, turnips, spinach, and 
late cabbage are also commonly grown as a second crop. 
This system of cropping is called succession cropping. 

Rotation. — For the vegetable garden, crop rotation is 
important. Different plants differ in their food require- 
ments. Some crops require a liberal supply of nitrogen, 
while others demand more potassium. Crops that are 
grown annually upon the same land are most slibject to 
serious injury from diseases and insect pests. All of these 
points should be carefully considered, not only that the 
crops may mature at the most desirable time and with the 
least expenditure of labor, but also that all portions of 
the land may be used to the best advantage. 

Disease Prevention. — No vegetable crop is entirely 
immune from diseases. Of the preventive measures, spray- 
ing is of first importance. The spores alighting on the 
surface of the fruit or foHage may be killed by spray mix- 
tures during their germination. Rotation is also an im- 
portant means of preventing disease, as many of the 
spores live over in the soil from year to year. New land is, 



DESTROYING INSECTS 



345 



therefore, generally free from these spores. The selection 
of resistant varieties is another important means of pre- 
venting disease. The purchase of seeds from infected 
sections is a common means of spreading diseases, for the 
spores of many diseases are carried on seeds from place 
to place. The treatment of seed to kill the spores is there- 
fore an effective method of dis- 
ease prevention. Many diseases 
are also carried in the manure. 
Throwing old diseased plants in 
the compost or manure pile and 
afterwards spreading this on the 
land is a very common method 
of infecting crops from season 
to season. All refuse from 
diseased plants should be de- 
stroyed. 

Destroying Insects. — Insect 
attacks can be prevented best 
by spraying. In spraying, it is 
necessary to apply the spray as 
soon as the insects appear, as it 
is easier to control them at that time than after they be- 
come numerous. Successful spraying depends largely upon 
selecting the most effective spray and upon doing the work 
thoroughly and at the right time. 

There are many spray pumps used for vegetable garden- 
ing work. The bucket sprayers are the most serviceable 
to use where the crops are either too close together or too 
far advanced to use the barrel or power sprayers. Barrel 
pumps are the most satisfactory for general crops, as they 
are cheap and require less labor than the hand sprayers. 




Barrel sprayer. 



346 VEGETABLE GARDENING 

Traction sprayers may be used for many crops and arc 
the most convenient for general use. 

In the selection of nozzles for vegetable spraying, it is 
important to select those that throw the spray in the 
finest mist and with the greatest force. The type used 
will vary with the pressure carried and the crop that is to 
be sprayed. The Vermorel and the Disc nozzles are two 
popular standard types. (See Chapter VIII.) 

EXERCISES 

1. Distinguish between home gardening, market gardening, 
truck gardening, and vegetable forcing. 

2. Name the desirable characteristics of a good home va- 
riety of a vegetable. Of a market variety. 

3. What are the requisites of the location of a home vege- 
table garden? Is your home garden located in accordance 
with these rules? How might it be changed so as more 
nearly to conform to them? 

4. What is the principal vegetable crop grown in your 
region ? 

5. What tvpe of soil is preferable for a garden spot? Has 
your garden at home a single type of soil or has it many types ? 
Bring to school samples of as many types as you can find in 
your own vegetable garden. 

6. Give the advantages and disadvantages of the following 
kinds of soil for vegetable production : coarse sand, medium 
fine sand, clay loam, stiff clay, and muck. 

7. Draw accurately and to scale a diagram of the way your 
home garden was planned last year, locating accurately the 
plots in which the various vegetables and bush fruits were 
grown. Measure the garden and accurately compute its area. 

8. Make a plan of your home garden as it would be if you 
could alter it in any way you think advisable. 



SCHOOL GARDENING WORK 



347 



SCHOOL GARDENING WORK 

1. Each student should be assigned a plot of ground at 
least lo by 25 feet in size. Larger individual gardens are often 
desirable. The several plots should be divided by main walks 
3 feet in width and secondary cross walks i-^ or 2 feet in width. 
The arrangement of these gardens depends much upon the 
shape of the particular piece of land available. 

A novelty garden, general garden, hotbed, and a demon- 
stration plot in which each exercise may be actually demon- 
strated by the teacher are also desirable adjuncts of the school 
garden. The borders of the school garden may be surrounded 
by narrow gardens where the girls may be given instruction in 
flower gardening. 

2. After informing the students of the list of vegetables that 
are to be grown, each one should make a plan of his garden, 
drawn to a definite scale in his notebook, showing the ar- 
rangement of the vegetables, distance apart of rows, succession 
cropping, and companion cropping. 

3. Prepare a page in your notebook and keep records as 
called for in the following table : 



Date op 
Planting 



Varieties 



Up 
Date 



Blooming 
Date 



Used 
Date 



Continued 
Bearing 



4. Prepare an account sheet in your notebook as follows 
and keep record of expenses and receipts. 



Date 


Paid Out 


$ 


i 


Date 


Received 


$ 


i 


April 10 


For seeds 




75 


July 25 


For doz. ears 
of corn 




IS 



CHAPTER XIV 
MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

Stable Manure. — Stable manure is the most valuable 
fertilizer for growing vegetables ; and market gardeners 
depend mainly upon it. It not only adds nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, and potassium, the three essential elements of 




Keystone View < '». 
Fig. 185. — Manure spreader followed by gang plow drawn by tractor. 

plant food, but also large quantities of vegetable matter to 
the soil, which improves the texture of the soil and increases 
its water-holding capacity. 

348 



AMOUNT TO APPLY 349 

The general farmer applies manure to the land as soon 
as possible after it is produced. In truck farming also, 
where the vegetable crops are in a rotation with grass or 
clover, this is a commendable practice ; but fresh stable 
manure is not suitable for intensive culture, because it is 
not quick enough in its action and its coarse texture pre- 
vents thorough incorporation with the soil. Fresh manure 
is likely to cause a rank growth of tops at the expense of 
the fruit or root. For example, it causes tomato plants to 
run to vine and may cause onions to produce a large per- 
centage of '' thick necks " or " scallions." Fresh manure 
often contains a large number of weed seeds that may 
prove very troublesome. Composting destroys weed seeds. 
Well-decomposed stable manure is the best for vegetable 
gardening. 

Time to Apply. — The proper time to apply manure 
depends upon its kind, its condition, the crops to be grown, 
and the rotation to be followed. If clover or grass land 
is to be prepared for a vegetable crop, the manure should be 
applied before plowing. If the manure is well decomposed 
and of a limited quantity, it is desirable to use it as a top 
dressing after plowing, thoroughly harrowing it into the 
soil. If two or more crops are to be grown in rotation dur- 
ing the same season, it is good practice to apply a portion 
to each crop. On soils of rather low fertility, it is a common 
practice to manure in the hills or rows, as this secures a 
greater concentration of the plant food in the region of 
the roots of the plants. 

Amount to Apply. — The amount of manure that can 
be most profitably supplied depends upon the kind of crop 
grown, the soil, and the available supply of manure. 
Market gardeners usually use from 25 to 50 tons per 



oo^ 



MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



acre each year, while the truck growers generally apply 
15 to 25 tons annually. If a commercial fertilizer is used 
to supplement stable manure, this amount may be con- 
siderably reduced. 

Commercial Fertilizers. — It is seldom that fertihzing 
with commercial fertilizers cannot be practiced profitably 
by the vegetable grower. This is particularly true when 

an adequate supply 
of animal manure 
is not available. 
Manures are richer 
in nitrogen than in 
phosphorus and po- 
tassium, and hence 
even where large 
quantities of stable 
manure are used, in- 
creased production 
usually results from 
the addition of these 
two elements of plant 
food. Some forms 
of commercial fertili- 

Fig. 186. A heavy crop of onions. Grown on muck ypr<; tnn hvr mnrp 
land to which commercial fertilizers were added. ^cis, luu, ctic iiiwic 

quickly available 
than manure and hence earlier crops may be produced 
by their use. Vegetables of a higher quahty are also 
possible, as slow growth is likely to produce bitter, tough, 
and stringy vegetables. 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is the most important element of 
plant food to be supplied on the Ught sandy soils. In the 
growth of lettuce, spinach, celery, and other foHage crops. 




COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 351 

nitrogen plays a most important part in producing an abun- 
dance of tender succulent leaves. It is the most expensive 
element of plant food. 

Nitrogen may be purchased in many forms. Nitrate of 
soda is used in comparatively small amounts and applied 
at intervals of ten days to two weeks. If applied all at 
one time, a large proportion is lost by leaching before the 
plants are ready to take it up. A common practice is to 
use a little at the time of planting, followed by other applica- 
tions as the crop develops. Sulphate of ammonia, not so 
quickly available, is used to supply nitrogen during a longer 
season of growth. All the organic forms of nitrogen, as 
dried blood and tankage, must decay before the nitrogen 
becomes available. 

Phosphorus. — Phosphorus aids in maturing the crop 
and producing maximum yields. Many soils are lacking 
in this element. Acid phosphate, bone meal, and raw 
rock phosphate are common sources of this element. 

Potassium. — Sandy soils and muck lands are likely to 
be low in potassium. Root crops require a bountiful sup- 
ply of this important substance. Muriate of potash and 
sulphate of potash are the most common forms used by 
commercial gardeners. 

The amount of commercial fertilizer that can be profitably 
used varies from 300 pounds to one or two tons per acre. 
Where two or more crops are grown annually upon the 
same land, the commercial grower endeavors to apply a 
small excess of all the essential fertilizer elements needed 
by the crops. One ton to the acre for a single crop is 
considered a liberal application, and it is seldom that 
larger amounts are profitable. 

Lime. — Few crops thrive in sour soils. It is highly 



352 MANURE AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

important to keep the garden soil slightly alkahne, and this 
requires the occasional use of lime. Many of the soils 
are infertile because of acidity which prevents the growth 
of the soil bacteria that are essential to decomposition. 
Liming alsQ promotes the growth of bacteria and makes plant 
food available. A thousand pounds of air-slacked lime 
to the acre is usually sufficient on most soils. This should 
be applied broadcast over the soil and harrowed in, care 
being taken not to mix it with horse manure, as it releases 
the nitrogen in the manure. If applied in the spring, it 
should be spread two or more weeks before seeding. 

Mixing of Fertilizers. — For the home garden, it is usu- 
ally most convenient to purchase high-grade commercial 
fertilizers already mixed. In commercial vegetable grow- 
ing, there are many advantages in the home mixing of 
fertilizers. The grower can compound the mixture in 
such proportions as best suits his particular needs, and 
thus know the kind and amount of each fertilizer used. 

Fertilizers may be mixed upon any tight floor. If 
nitrate of soda or potash salts are used, they should be 
crushed fine before mixing. The light materials, as dried 
blood or tankage, should be put on the bottom of the floor 
and the other materials spread over them. The materials 
are then thoroughly mixed by shoveling the pile over 
several times. After mixing, the fertilizer should be bagged 
and kept in dry storage until ready for use. One of the 
chief advantages of buying factory-mixed fertilizers is 
that they are more uniformly mixed. 

Cover Crops. — Many truck growers find the practice 
of cover-cropping the most economical method of supply- 
ing humus. Sometimes this cover crop is left to grow for 
a year or more and forms one of the crops of a rotation. 



EXERCISES 353 

Growers that practice this method are not troubled so much 
with injurious insects and diseases as those who are forced 
to produce the same crops on the same land year after year. 
(See paragraph on cover crops in connection with fruits, 
Chapter VI.) 

EXERCISES 

1. Name the three fertilizing elements that are contained 
in manure and commercial fertilizers. 

2. What are the objections to the use of fresh stable manure 
in market gardens? 

3. Name three fertilizers that are rich in nitrogen, three 
rich in phosphorus, two rich in potassium. 

4. What soil condition makes necessary the addition of lime ? 

5. What is a cover crop? Is clover a good cover crop? 
Why? 

HOME PROJECT 

In fertilizing the home garden use a moderate amount of 
well-decomposed manure over the entire area. Supplement 
this on one half the garden with a dressing of acid phosphate 
applied at the rate of 300 pounds per acre. Keep date in 
notebook to prove results. 



M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 23 



CHAPTER XV 
TILLAGE AND IRRIGATION 

The yield and quality of a vegetable crop depends much 
upon tillage. The objects of tillage are as follows : (i) 
to improve the physical condition of the soil ; (2) to pre- 
serve and control the soil moisture ; (3) to modify soil 
temperature ; (4) to destroy weeds and to cover humus- 
producing materials, as manure or cover crops ; (5) to 
aerate the soil and thus hasten its chemical action and 
make plant food soluble. 

Plowing. — In the Middle West, fall plowing is preferred. 
The broken furrows collect water, hence a maximum supply 
of soil moisture is assured, and on sod land, the sod has 
time to decompose. Fall plowing destroys many insects 
and thus reduces their injury to the crops. Fall-plowed 
land may be harrowed and planted earlier in the spring. 

The proper depth of plowing depends upon the crop to 
be planted as well as upon the natural depth of the top 
soil. Deep plowing is usually best for vegetable crops al- 
though the turning up of subsoil is always detrimental to 
these crops. 

Harrowing. — Fall-plowed land should be harrowed as 
soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring. If plowed 
in the spring, the ground should be harrowed immediately 
after plowing. 

The function of harrowing is to pulverize the soil and 
smooth the land. Disk and cutaway harrows are especially 

354 



CULTIVATION 355 

valuable and are most suitable for heavy sod lands and 
clay soils. The spring-tooth harrow is often used after 
the disk or cutaway harrows to pulverize and level the land 
further. In vegetable gardening, one cannot prepare the 
soil too finely, as it insures uniformity of depth, moisture, 
and temperature for the seeds. Raking with hand rakes 
after harrowing is a very expensive practice. A smoothing 
harrow does the work of a steel garden rake in making the 
soil very fine. The plank drag is used by many market 
gardeners to prepare a very fine, smooth surface for small 
seeds and delicate seedlings. 

Cultivation. — The most important function of cultiva- 
tion is to preserve soil moisture. Although it is also the 




Fig. 187. — Hand cultivation of sugar beets. 

most economical means of destroying weeds, this is really 
a secondary matter. 

In growing onions, radishes, lettuce, and similar crops, the 
rows are generally too close to permit the use of horse cul- 
tivators. Hand cultivators, therefore, are most impor- 
tant tools in the general intensive garden. 



356 



TILLAGE AND IRRIGATION 



Cultivation should begin as soon as possible after seed- 
ing. After the seedlings appear, it is best to cultivate 
every week or ten days and after every hard rain. The 
depth of cultivation depends upon the kind and size of 
the plant. , 

Hand hoeing is not so efficient as cultivating with horse 
or wheel cultivators. If hand hoeing is practiced, it should 
be done before the weeds are large or it will prove both 
tedious and expensive. 

Economical and efficient work can only be accomplished 
with good tools, hence the following points may be profit- 




overhead irrigation of tomatoes. 



ably observed: (i) keep all implements and tools under 
cover when not in use ; (2) keep them in good repair ; and 
(3) clean all tools before storing. 

Irrigation. — The necessity of insuring garden and 
truck crops against unfavorable weather conditions is 



IRRIGATION 357 

highly important. The investment in the crop is so large 
that the grower cannot always afford to depend upon 
seasonal conditions for its success. Hence, irrigation in 
humid regions often becomes necessary to protect a crop 
against droughts. 

Water apphed at the right time produces large yields of 
high quality and earlier maturity. Seeds cannot germinate 
without moisture, and transplanting often fails during hot, 
dry weather. Irrigation promotes continuous growth and 
development from the time the crop is seeded until maturity. 
Greater benefits are also obtained from the fertilizers when 
an abundant supply of moisture is at hand, as water is not 
only a solvent for plant foods, but also serves as a medium 
in their distribution. 

Various methods of irrigation are practiced by vegetable 
growers. In the West, the furrow method is most generally 
used. The land must be properly graded, however, for 
carrying the water to the various parts of the garden by 
this system. On porous soils or on land of uneven con- 
tour, it is not desirable. 

Underground tile may be laid a foot to one and a 
half feet in depth, in lines about ten to fifteen feet apart 
throughout the field. This is a good system, as the crop 
is watered from underneath and there is less loss by evapo- 
ration. The foliage of the plants is not wet and there is 
less Hability of injury from fungous diseases. 

In the overhead system of irrigation overhead fines of 
pipe about twenty-five feet apart are supported on posts 
and run across the field. Openings about four feet apart 
are made in this pipe, into which small nozzles are inserted. 
These throw a fine mist over the crop. The advantages 
of this system, which is popular with market gardeners, 



358 TILLAGE AND IRRIGATION 

are as follows: (i) the water falling in a line spray pre- 
vents the washing and packing of the soil ; (2) the water 
is distributed uniformly over the crops ; (3) it requires 
very little labor to operate the system. 

EXERCISES 

1. What are the objects of tillage? 

2. What is the chief object of cultivation? What is a soil 
mulch ? 

3. What is the effect of working soil when it is too moist? 
What is the effect of tilling soil when it is too dry? 

4. How many times do you usually cultivate your garden? 

5. What rules should be observed when caring for tools? 
How many of these do you observe? 

6. Explain the various methods of irrigation. With your 
local conditions, which system would prove most practical? 
Do you think it would pay? 

7. Visit a garden that has an irrigating system when the 
system is in operation. 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK 

It is desirable to have the entire school garden manured, 
plowed, and harrowed as early in the spring as the soil can be 
properly handled. From a plan drawn to a definite scale of 
the entire school gardening plots, the students should be as- 
signed a definite portion of the work in the staking out of the 
walks and gardens. This should constitute a valuable exercise 
in measuring, sighting, and working from the plan to the garden. 
Each student must be held responsible for a certain definite 
portion of this work. 

Each student should then thoroughly rake and smooth off 
his assigned garden, square up the boundaries of the garden, 
and tidy up the walks surrounding it. 



HOME PROJECT 359 

HOME PROJECT 

Select a plot of ground at least 32 feet by 32 feet. Plow 
half of this plot in the fall and half in the spring. Cul- 
tivate each plot in the spring at least once a week until planted. 
FertiHze each plot the same and seed or plant to some common 
vegetable crop as spinach, onion, cabbage, or tomato. Culti- 
vate half of each plot once every week, and the other half once 
every two weeks. Make a plan of the garden showing the four 
plots and keep a detailed record of the date, labor, and method 
of performing the work. Every two weeks during the growing 
season and at harvest time note the comparative condition of 
each plot. 



CHAPTER XVI 

GLASS STRUCTURES AND CARE OF GREENHOUSE 

CROPS 

In producing early vegetables glass structures are es- 
sential. These are used both as a means of starting plants 
early in the spring and of growing crops during the winter 
season when it is impossible to produce them out of doors. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are the simplest and cheapest forms 
of heated glass structures. A well-drained spot, protected 




Fig. 189. — Cross section of a hotbed. 

from the north and west, conveniently located, and acces- 
sible to a liberal supply of water, are the essential condi- 
tions governing their location. The heat furnished the 
beds is usually produced by the fermentation of manure. 
Since from fifteen to thirty inches of manure is required, a 
pit should be dug one and a half to three feet deep. For 
starting plants that require high temperature for a long 

360 



COLD FRAMES 361 

period, the greater depth is desirable. The pit is dug in 
the fall before the ground freezes and protected with leaves 
or manure during the winter. It should be of the same 
width as the length of the sash and of any desired length, 
and should extend east and west. The frame may be 
made of wood, brick, or concrete. The north side of the 
frame should be about six inches higher than the south 
side, to give the bed the proper exposure. 

For hotbeds, fresh horse manure containing a large por- 
tion of straw is preferred. This is stacked in a shed or 
other protected spot in piles four to five feet wide and 
about four feet high. After two or three days, these piles 
should be forked over, and three or four days later shoveled 
into the pit. The frame is also banked outside with 
manure. In filling the pit, the manure should be placed 
in successive layers of five or six inches and thoroughly 
tamped down, especially along the sides of the frame. 
From four to six inches of good soil is then spread over the 
top. If a thermometer is thrust into the soil, it will be 
noticed that the temperature rises considerably for a day 
or two. After it has receded to about 80° Fahrenheit, the 
bed is ready for use. 

Muskmelons, cucumbers, lettuce, tomatoes, and many 
other vegetables may be started in the hotbed and later 
transplanted to the field. Hotbeds are largely used for 
growing and maturing such crops as radishes and lettuce. 
In the fall, they are often used for maturing late crops. 

Cold Frames. — A cold frame is even simpler than a hot- 
bed, to which it is quite similar except that no bottom heat 
is supplied, hence it is not necessary to dig a deep pit for 
its construction. A cold frame is built on the surface of 
the ground, using a twelve-inch plank for the upper side of 



362 GLASS STRUCTURES AND GREENHOUSE CROPS 




CONSTRUCTION 363 

the frame and a six-inch plank for the lower side. The 
location and general construction is otherwise very similar 
to that of the hotbed. For some crops, it is desirable to 
dig a shallow pit in order to provide room for the tops of 
the plants. For example, to grow tomato plants, it will 
require a deeper frame than for radishes or lettuce. These 
frames are easily moved from one place to another and are 
often used to force plants in the spring that have been 
previously started in the fall. Their chief function is to 
grow plants that have been previously started in the green- 
house or hotbed, and to harden plants that have been 
grown in the greenhouse, before setting them in the field. 
The cheapness of their construction makes them extremely 
desirable. 

Greenhouses. — The out-of -season demand for many of the 
vegetables has resulted in the construction of large green- 
houses. These have many advantages over hotbeds. 
The conditions of temperature and moisture can be defi- 
nitely controlled and crops can be produced during the 
most unfavorable weather. They provide profitable em- 
ployment for the market gardener the year round and are 
also valuable for starting early plants to be later trans- 
planted to the field. 

In selecting a location, it is desirable to choose a site 
that is protected from the north and west, that has a good 
exposure to the south, and that is unshaded by other 
buildings. 

Construction. — The heat and moisture within a green- 
house causes rapid decay of wooden parts. Cypress and 
cedar are the most durable kinds of wood and are there- 
fore largely used for this purpose. Probably the most 
practical form of construction is what is known as the semi- 



364 GLASS STRUCTURES AND GREENHOUSE CROPS 

iron type. Such greenhouses are built with concrete 
walls and with the interior braces and supports of iron pipes. 
The roof bars and other wooden parts, if made of cypress 
and painted every year, will last for some time and may 
then be replaced without a large expense. The construction 
should be such as to provide a maximum amount of light. 

A greenhouse should have ample provisions for thorough 
ventilation. Ventilators are placed at one or both sides 
of the ridge and frequently extra ventilators are placed 
along the sides of the house. It is the aim to place the 
ventilators in such a manner as to prevent cold drafts from 
striking the plants and to provide ample ventilation dur- 
ing all kinds of weather. 

Greenhouses are heated by steam or hot water. The 
larger greenhouses are generally heated by steam. Hot 
water is preferred for heating small houses, as the pipes re- 
tain heat for a greater length of time and the boiler may be 
left longer without attention. 

Soils. — A well-drained soil of good texture containing 
an ample supply of plant food is required for greenhouse 
culture. Usually a sandy loam is preferred, although muck 
soils are frequently used. Where large quantities of soil 
are required, a suitable garden area is selected in the spring 
and given a heavy coat of stable manure. The land is 
then plowed and afterwards harrowed repeatedly during 
the summer. By fall, it is in excellent condition for use. 
If a smaller quantity of soil is required, it may be pre- 
pared by composting. A good blue grass sod is selected 
and stacked in alternate layers with manure. It is then 
left to decompose. After standing for about a year, the 
pile is shoveled over two or three times at intervals of a 
few weeks, and is then ready to use. 



TEMPERATURE 365 

Temperature. — The proper temperature for vegetable 
forcing varies greatly with the kind of vegetables. Let- 
tuce and radishes grow best at a comparatively low tem- 
perature, while tomatoes and cucumbers demand a high 
temperature for their best development. Plants grown at 
too high a temperature produce weak, spindling stems and 
are very susceptible to disease. If the temperature is too 
low, it seriously weakens the plants and stunts their growth. 
The temperature at which plants may be maintained also 
varies with the general weather conditions. During bright 
sunny weather when plenty of ventilation may be given, 
the temperature may run considerably higher than is de- 
sirable under other conditions. During a prolonged 
dark, cloudy period, it is better to maintain a lower tem- 
perature than the plants ordinarily demand. It is always 
the practice to maintain the temperature fifteen to twenty 
degrees lower at night than during the day. A greater 
difference of temperature than this is seldom desired and 
is usually harmful. 

In controlling the temperatures of hotbeds, it is a com- 
mon fault of the beginner to allow the bed to cool off too 
much during the afternoon before replacing the sash. All 
hotbeds, especially during the early spring, should be 
covered early in the afternoon to prevent chilling the 
plants. In ventilating them during cool weather, the 
sash should be opened in such a manner as to prevent 
cold drafts from striking the plants. During dark, cloudy 
weather, hotbeds need little ventilation. 

In order to control the temperature of hotbeds, it is 
frequently necessary to provide additional protection. 
Mats made of rye straw are commonly used to cover the 
sash during severe weather. Burlap mats stuffed with 



366 c;lass structures and greenhouse crops 

cotton waste are also used for this purpose, although they 
are less satisfactory. 

Watering. — Plants growing under glass need careful 
watering. During bright sunny weather, when the plants 
are growing very rapidly, they need much water. Dur- 
ing bright weather, most crops have to be watered daily, 
while during cloudy weather, they may not need water 




Fig. igi. — Watering the plants in a hotbed. 

for a week. As most fungous diseases of vegetables thrive 
under warm, moist conditions, all greenhouse crops should 
be watered early in the morning on bright days, that the 
foliage of the plants may dry before night. The soil 
should be thoroughly moistened as deep as the roots 
extend. Watering in the evening not only increases fun- 
gous growth but also tends to chill the bed and thus in- 
crease the danger of frost. 



HOME PROJECT 367 



EXERCISES 



1. Make a working drawing of a hotbed 12 feet by 6 feet, 
showing the back of the frame 6 inches higher than the front 
and a pit 2 feet deep, filled with 12 inches of manure, and 
covered with about 4 inches of soil. 

2. If there are any greenhouses in the neighborhood, make a 
trip to see them, taking notes on the method of heating, width of 
glass, ventilation, and the crops raised. 

3. Draw a diagram of a cold frame to grow tomato plants. 

4. What are the principal requirements of a good soil for 
greenhouses ? 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK 

The class should construct a hotbed in the school garden. 
Note in detail the material used in construction and estimate 
the cost of the material; also describe the general method of 
procedure in its construction. Insert a soil thermometer in 
the soil after finishing and note the temperature of the soil 
each day until ready for seeding. 

HOME PROJECT 

Make a working drawing of a hotbed covering at least 36 
square feet of space. Estimate the material required for the 
same. Construct the hotbed at least a month before outdoor 
planting weather. Sow tomato, cabbage, celery, cantaloupe, 
and other vegetable seeds to produce a sufficient supply of these 
plants for the home garden. Seed the remainder of the bed to 
lettuce and radish. Ventilate, water, and otherwise care for 
the bed as outlined in the text. Transplant at the proper time, 
and harden plants before transplanting to the field. Keep an 
accurate record of each day's work. 



CHAPTER XVII 

SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING 

Success in vegetable gardening depends primarily upon 
good seed. The most fertile soil and the best care cannot 
produce profitable crops with poor seed. Good seed must 
possess the following essential requisites : 

1. Must be true to name. It is usually easy to tell by 
the external characters the kind of seed, although one can- 
not determine the variety. 

2. Must be viable; that is, a large percentage of seeds 
should under favorable conditions produce vigorous plants. 

3. Must be free from weed seeds and other impurities. 
Seed Sowing. — In sowing seeds, success depends 

largely upon the proper preparation of the seed bed. If 
the soil is coarse and lumpy, a good stand of plants cannot 
be obtained. Each particle of soil is surrounded with a 
film of water, and when a large number of these are brought 
into direct contact with the seed, a sufiicient supply of 
moisture is assured. If the soil is a stiff clay, devoid of 
humus, and firmly packed, the seeds will also fail to grow 
because of the lack of air. A soil well filled with humus 
should be selected. 

The time to sow vegetable seeds depends largely upon 
the temperature of the soil and the time it is desired to 
market the crop. Seeds, such as lettuce, beets, and onions, 
will germinate at a temperature of 50°, while other seeds, 
as tomato, eggplant, and beans, require a much higher 

368 



SEED SOWING 



369 



temperature. Hence, the former crops may be planted 
early in the spring, while the latter should not be sown 
until the soil becomes thoroughly warmed and there 
is less danger of subsequent cold spells. Seed should be 
sown as soon as possible after the soil is prepared. Bet- 
ter results are always obtained from sowing seed in freshly 
stirred soil. 

The depth of sowing depends largely upon the size of 
the seed, the season, and the character of the soil. Large 
seeds may be planted deeper than small seeds. With some 
of the smaller seeds, 
as celery, it is a 
common practice 
simply to scatter the 
seed on the surface 
of the soil and press 
it in. In light soils, 
the depth of plant- 
ing may be consider- 
ably greater than 
in heavy soils. In 
early spring, since 
the soil is usually 
very moist, seed is 
planted nearer the 
surface than in sum- 
mer and fall seeding. 

With non-cultivated crops, broadcasting is often desir- 
able. All cultivated crops are sown in drills. Seeds sown 
in this manner are at a more uniform depth and distance 
apart, and the plants may be cultivated, thinned, and cared 
for systematically. When the seed is sown by machines, 




A seed drill. 



M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 



24 



370 SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING 

there is little difficulty in getting the rows perfectly straight 
and a uniform distance apart. In the home garden, lines 
should be used to secure straight rows. The seed should 
be dropped at a uniform distance in the furrow. Seed 
drills may be regulated to do this, but in hand seeding, it 
will be necessary to exercise care to secure an even dis- 
tribution. After seeding, the furrows may be closed with 
the rake or hoe. With seeding machines, a roller at- 
tachment is generally used to firm the soil, but in hand 
seeding the soil can be pressed with the back of the hoe. 

Transplanting. — Many of the vegetable crops are 
started in seed boxes or beds and later transplanted to 
their permanent quarters. In the arid regions, transplant- 
ing is not practiced so much as in the more humid sections 
where the weather conditions are more favorable for growth. 
Some of the most important reasons for transplanting 
are the following : 

1. Crops such as tomatoes, cabbage, celery, and lettuce 
can be started very much earlier in the spring in hotbeds 
or greenhouses and later transplanted to the field. 

2. Crops do not require as much space during the first 
few weeks of their growth and hence larger areas may be 
used for other crops. In this manner, two or more crops 
may often be produced in a single season from the same 
area. 

3. Transplanting generally produces a more fibrous root 
system. In transplanting, the taproot and many of the 
small, tender lateral roots are broken, causing a branching 
of these roots. 

4. The soil for seeding may be prepared extremely fine 
and the temperature definitely controlled. The seedhngs 
may be easily and carefully watered at the proper time. 



TRANSPLANTING 371 

These advantages make it advisable to transplant cer- 
tain vegetables into temporary quarters before the final 
transplanting into beds or fields. If celery, cabbage, or 
tomato plants are transplanted once before setting in the 
field, a better stand of plants is obtained. 

Plants which have many small, fibrous roots can be trans- 
planted most successfully. Cabbage, lettuce, and celery 
possess such root systems, while peas, melons, and other 
plants having relatively few fibrous roots are most difficult 
to transplant. 

The plants should be set slightly deeper than they stood 
in the seed bed. There is less danger of setting too deep 
than too shallow. When the plants are tall and spindling, 
it is especially desirable to set them deep. Plants should 
be watered an hour or two before digging, and if the weather 
is hot and dry, should be kept well shaded until ready for 
setting. Just before a rain or during a dark, cloudy day is 
the most favorable time for transplanting. When large 
numbers of plants must be set, transplanting must be done 
at all times of the day regardless of the weather conditions. 
If the soil is exceedingly dry, it should be watered before 
the plants are set. An opening in the soil is then made 
with the dibble or trowel large enough to accommodate 
the root system of the plant without crowding. The 
plant is set with its roots well spread in the hole and the 
soil pressed firmly about it. 

Transplanting machines are often used where large 
numbers of plants are to be set. These machines do the 
work better, more rapidly, and with less expense than is 
commonly done by hand. A narrow shovel on the ma- 
chine opens a furrow, while two men seated behind alter- 
nately drop the plants into this furrow. As each plant 



372 



SEED SOWING AND TRANSPLANTING 



is dropped, a pint or more of water from a tank on the 
machine is dropped with each plant, and rollers, which 
follow behind, press the soil back into place. 

Flats. — Shallow boxes commonly known as flats are 
used in sowing and transplanting early crops. They are 
made of any convenient size, depending largely upon the 
width of the greenhouse benches. They are usually about 




Fig. 193. — Tomato seedlings in a gardener's flat ; cucumber seedlings in poto. 



two and a half inches deep and of such a width and length 
as to be easily handled. A convenient fiat may be made 
with end pieces three fourths of an inch thick and the sides 
and bottoms half an inch thick. One fourth inch cracks 
should be left between the bottom pieces to provide drainage. 
In growing crops in hotbeds, fiats are especially serviceable, 
as seed sowing and transplanting may be done indoors. 



FLATS 373 

Flats should be filled with soil of good texture and moist 
enough to work well. In filling flats, it is important that 
the soil be made perfectly level, for otherwise the seed will 
be washed in watering. With a straight-edge about a 
half inch thick small furrows about one and a half inches 
apart and a fourth of an inch deep should be made for 
the seed, beginning about half an inch from the end of 
the flat. After the seed has been carefully distributed in 
these furrows, it should be covered with a little soil which 
should afterwards be firmly pressed down. The flat should 
then be watered and placed in the greenhouse or hotbed. 

As soon as the true leaves are formed the seedlings may 
be transplanted to other flats in which well-decomposed 
manure has been placed in the bottom and afterwards filled 
with soil even with the top of the box. After leveling and 
pressing down, the surface of the soil should be about 
half an inch below the top of the flat. The plants are then 
set in straight rows both ways. The flat should be set in 
a cool, shady place for a day and then transferred to the 
greenhouse, hotbeds, or cold frames. 

Before such plants are transplanted out of doors they 
should be hardened. If they are planted directly from the 
greenhouse or hotbeds to the field, the soft, tender tissues 
of the plants cannot endure the low temperature and the 
cool, drying winds. In hardening them, water should be 
applied sparingly and air admitted to the frames more and 
more each day, until finally the sash is removed entirely 
during the day and replaced again at night. Such plants 
as cabbage, celery, and other hardy vegetables, if properly 
hardened before transplanting, will endure freezing, but 
if they are not properly hardened, they will be injured by 
slight frosts. 



374 



SEED SOWINC; AND TRANSPLANTING 
TIME AND MF:TH0D OF PLANTING SEEDS 



Seeds 


Time 


Distance 

Between 

Rows 


Distance Apart 
IN Row 


Depth of 
Planting 


Beans . . .^ . 


After frost 










danger 


2 ft. 


3-4 in. 


2 in. 


Beets .... 


Early 


2 ft 




3 in. 


I in. 


Cabbage . . . 


Early 


3 ft 




2 ft. 


Transplant 


Sweet corn . 


Early 


3 ft 




2hit. 


2 in. 


Cucumbers . . 


After frost 


4 ft 




^ in. 6-8 seeds 




Lettuce . . . 


Early 


I ft 




§in. 


iin. 


Melons . . . 


After frost 


4 ft 




4 ft. 


I in. 6-8 seeds 


Onion sets . . 


Early 


I ft 




2 in. 


2 in. 


Peas .... 


Early 


2 ft 




I in. 


2 in. 


Radishes . . . 


Early 


I ft 




i in. 


ym. 


Spinach . . . 


Early 


I ft 




iin. 


|in. 


Sweet potato 


After frost 


3-4 ft. 


12 in. 


Transplant on 
ridge 


Turnip . . . 


Early and 










late 


2 ft. 


3-4 in. 


iin. 


Tomato . . . 


After frost 


4 ft. 


3-6 ft. 


Transplant 



EXERCISES 

1. Give the three essential requisites of good seed. Which 
one of these do you consider of most importance ? 

2. Examine samples of commercial seed bought at the local 
market for evidences of weed seeds, grit, and other impurities. 
Determine the per cent of each by weight. 

3. How do you plant seeds at home? Do you plant them 
all at the same depth? 

4. Name the four important advantages of transplanting. 
Which one of these is the one for which most of the transplanting 
is done in your locality? 

5. Why should plants not be set out in the heat of the day? 

6. Explain the proper method of fiUing a flat with soil. Of 
sowing seeds in flats. Of transplanting. 



SCHOOL GARDEN WORK 375 

SCHOOL GARDEN WORK 

(Each student should be assigned a definite space in the 
hotbed for starting early plants. It will prove more convenient 
if the seeds are sown into flats rather than directly into the 
hotbed soil. Cabbage, tomatoes, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, 
and such other crops as are desirable for transplanting to the 
garden should be seeded at such times as to be of good size 
at the proper- period for transplanting out of doors. 

Each student should be supplied with a separate flat. A 
flat 12 inches wide, 20 inches long, and 3 inches deep is con- 
venient.) 

Take one part of good garden soil, two parts of sand, and 
mix thoroughly. Sift the mixed soil through a sieve of about 
a quarter-inch mesh and spread the lumps over the bottom of 
the flat for drainage. Fill with loose, fine soil even with the 
top of the flat and press down firmly and evenly with a block. 
Beginning about three fourths of an inch from the right-hand 
end of the flat, make a shallow drill about a quarter of an inch 
deep with a small straight stick that is about half an inch thick. 
Distribute the seeds evenly in the drill so that they are about 
a quarter of an inch apart. On a small garden label, write 
your name or number on one side and the name and variety 
of vegetable, together with the date, on the other side. Place 
this label at the head of the row in the flat. 

About one and a half inches from the first row, the second 
drill may be made and likewise the remainder of the flat may 
be filled. Label each row, if sown with a different kind of 
vegetable. 

Cover the seed by sifting a little fine soil evenly over the flat 
and afterwards pressing it firmly with the block. Water gently 
to prevent washing and set the flat in the hotbeds in such a 
manner as to be perfectly level; otherwise, future waterings 
will wash the seeds to the lower side. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

HARvksTING, MARKETING, AND STORING 
VEGETABLES 

Harvesting. — As market gardeners usually market 
several kinds of produce at the same time, the harvesting 
and packing of these crops is a complex proposition. The 
vegetables are usually harvested in the field, placed in 
special picking baskets or crates, and afterwards hauled to 
the packing house, where they are carefully sorted, graded, 
and packed for the market. Women are frequently em- 
ployed for this work and are generally neater and more 
expert than men. 

Packages. — It is often said that the package sells the 
product. A neat, attractive package should always be 
selected. It should be of such size as to be most con- 
venient to handle and pack on wagon or car. It should be 
of such a character as to prevent bruising, heating, or other 
injury to the contents. Few containers are returned to 
the growers and it is necessary that they be inexpensive. 
The style of the container varies with market demands, 
and the container used for a crop in one section is often very 
different from that used in marketing the same crop in 
other sections. As a rule, in shipping first-class products, 
the smaller packages are desirable. The tendency in 
marketing to-day is to ship in such a package that the 
produce may be sold direct to the consumer without re- 
handhng or repacking. 

376 



MARKETING 



377 



Marketing. — The profits in vegetable growing depend 
as much upon methods of marketing as upon methods of 
cultivation. Many gardeners are expert growers but poor 
market men. The details of marketing are just as im- 




Fig. 194. — A good crop of tomatoes ready to be harvested. 



portant as the details of production and must be as thor- 
oughly mastered if the greatest profits are to be realized. 

The success of a grower depends largely upon his ability 
to produce crops that satisfy the consumer. The user is 
the final judge. Quality is the first essential. Vegetables of 
high quahty are often packed and shipped in such a man- 
ner as to spoil their market value. The appearance of the 
product as presented to the consumer is also important. 



378 HAR\ES'riN(i AND MARKETING VEGETABLES 

The product should be graded as to size, color, ripeness, 
and soundness, and packed in attractive receptacles. Be- 
sides these considerations, it is of great importance to 



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Fig. 195. — Preparing vegetables and fruits for market. 

place the products on the market when the consumer is 
most anxious to purchase them. 

Cooperation. — The problems of marketing may often 
best be solved by the growers forming a cooperative or- 
ganization. In this way, the marketing is placed in the 
hands of an experienced manager who possesses ability for 
this work. This is advisable in localities devoting their 
attention to the growing of one kind of crop. As a rule, 
cooperative associations are formed mainly for the purpose 
of selHng produce, but they may also buy fertilizers, pack- 
ages, and other supplies for members, and build storage 
and packing houses for the produce. Such associations 
are found to-day in many sections of the country. The 



DISTRIBUTION 379 

management of the association is generally placed in the 
hands of a board of directors, who are elected by the mem- 
bers, and who in turn appoint a manager. The manager 
may be hired on a salary or on a commission basis, and in 
the larger association, he gives all his time to the work. 
In the smaller association, he usually works on a com- 
mission basis. 

Distribution. — One of the greatest advantages of co- 
operative organizations is that they insure a proper dis- 
tribution of the crops. Good distribution is almost im- 
possible without organization. If the shipping of the crop 
is in the hands of one man who is in close touch with the 
supply and demand of each market, slumps in prices due 
to glutted markets may be successfully avoided. 

Cooperative associations relieve the producer of the 
details and troubles associated with marketing problems. 
He can then devote all his energies to the producing end 
of the business. Associations should be able also to sell 
at uniformly higher prices than an individual producer, as 
a manager is able to keep in closer touch with the various 
markets, especially of the larger consuming centers. Ship- 
ments can be made on a larger scale, which means a greater 
saving in the cost of shipping as well as better transpor- 
tation. Better prices are also obtained because the prod- 
uct may be uniformly packed under strict rules by laborers 
under the direct supervision of the manager. Uniformity 
in packages means the establishment of a reputation, and 
consequently a greater demand for the product. Indirectly, 
organizations have resulted in bringing the growers closer 
together. They become interested in each other's crops, 
and by the mutual exchange of ideas, become more intel- 
ligent and successful producers. 



380 HARVESTING AND MARKETING \'EGETABLES 




Fig. 196. — An onion storage house. 



Storage. — Many of our vegetables are marketed as 
soon as possible after harvesting, while others are stored 
for short or long periods. 

Moisture, temperature, and fresh air are the three 
storage factors that must be controlled. Root crops must 

be kept moist to 
preserve their firm- 
ness and freshness, 
but onions must be 
kept dry in order to 
prevent their decay. 
The temperature 
must be kept high 
for squashes, but 
for cabbages and 
onions it is impor- 
tant to keep it just above the freezing point. Thorough 
ventilation is also necessary. 

Vegetables that are to be stored should be mature and 
free from disease and mechanical injury. Cabbages are 
harvested just before they have matured, but onions, 
squashes, and many other crops should be well matured 
before storing. The construction of storage houses should 
vary with the kind of crops to be stored. Many of the 
vegetables grown in the home garden may be successfully 
stored in the house cellar if moisture, temperature, and 
ventilation can be controlled. Many cellars, however, are 
too warm and dry for the successful storing of these crops. 
When storing on a small scale, pits are frequently used, 
and being inexpensive and easily constructed, are very 
satisfactory. Beets, carrots, and other root crops are 
frequently buried out of doors. These crops are placed 



EXERCISES 381 

in long piles two or three feet high and three or four feet 
wide at the base. These piles are covered with straw, 
and after the weather becomes colder they are further 
protected from freezing by a covering of earth. 

EXERCISES 

1. Make a table showing the methods of harvesting and 
marketing (by bushel or bunch), and the size of package for 
peas, beans, carrots, sweet corn, squashes, onions, radishes, 
cabbages, and beets in your community and the average price 
per unit last season. 

2. Design a trade-mark and label which might be placed on 
all the goods you sell from the farm. Show by color, shape, or 
word that you guarantee your goods to be true to name. 

3. Are there any cooperative associations of vegetable 
growers in your state? 

4. Explain in detail the method of harvesting, grading, 
packing, and marketing of one important vegetable crop grown 
in your section. 



CHAPTER XIX 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Styles. — The three principal styles of landscape gar- 
dening are the formal or geometrical style, the natural 
style, and the picturesque style. The principles govern- 
ing each style are so different that they can seldom be 
combined without discord. This is especially true in 
small areas, but on large estates different styles may. be 
used and harmoniously combined. 

The Formal or Geometrical Style is characterized by its 
regularity, symmetry, and geometrical forms. Trees 
planted in rows, walks and drives laid either in straight 
lines or geometrical curves, and water in fountains or basins 
are all characteristic features of the formal garden. 

The Natural Style is especially adapted to the improve- 
ment of the farm home grounds. The principal character- 
istics of this style are large, open lawns of graceful curving 
surfaces ; trees, shrubs, and flowering plants naturally dis- 
posed ; and walks laid out with simple, pleasing curves. 
All forms in this style of landscape design should be free, 
flowing, and graceful, thus producing a natural effect. 

The Picturesque Style also aims to produce natural ef- 
fects although its method and style of presentation are 
quite different. Abrupt lines and irregular forms and 
figures are used rather than the smooth, simple, flowing 
lines of the natural style. Irregular groups of wind- 
swept pines on the top of a barren hillside with broken 

382 



PICTURESQUE STYLE 



383 




384 LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

banks and steep ravines present a picturesque type of 
beauty. This spirit of boldness, irregularity, and wild- 
ness may be enhanced in the designing of walks and drives 
and even in the buildings themselves when improving such 
landscape scenes by the picturesque style. 

Each style of landscape gardening may be introduced 
with good effect in appropriate surroundings. In public 
squares or about stately buildings where gardens of a 
highly pretentious and elaborate character are desirable, 
the formal style is most suitable. Very frequently, too, 
in small gardens where variety and naturalness are impos- 
sible because of limited size, the formal garden is most 
appropriate. In the country where the surroundings are 
natural, either the picturesque or natural style is suitable. 
Where the land is rough and abrupt, or where some large 
bowlder or irregular group of trees determines the site, the 
picturesque style may be desirable ; while in districts 
where the land is gently rolling and covered with maples, 
elms, and other smooth, round-topped trees, the natural 
style is to be preferred. 

The purpose of landscape gardening is to arrange the 
buildings, walks, drives, lawns, and plantings so that 
they will best serve the purposes for which they are in- 
tended and still be combined in a pleasing manner. All 
home grounds possess elements of natural beauty, and the 
landscape gardener should perceive and enhance this 
natural beauty rather than attempt to create a different 
type. 

Selection of Building Sites. — In the selection of build- 
ing sites there are three things to be kept in mind ; namely, 
soil drainage, air drainage, and exposure. A well-drained 
soil is the first requisite. Air drainage is of nearly equal 



SELECTION OF BUILDING SITES 



385 



importance. Hollows in which cold, damp air collects 
are to be avoided. It is also important to select a site 
that is protected from the cold winds of winter. 

It is important that the barns be well away from the 
house and so placed that the prevailing winds will carry 



'4^R0DS- 




SWINE 



HORSES 



Fig. 198. — Arrangement of grounds surrounding a farmhouse. 



the odor of the stables away from the house. The house 
should be situated some little distance back from the road 
and so placed as to have a commanding view of the coun- 
try around. 



M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 



25 



386 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 



Walks and Drives. — Walks and drives are elements 
of necessity rather than of beauty and should be so de- 
signed as to be convenient and direct. Dividing the grounds 
by walks or drives not only tends to destroy the unity of 
the design, but also to diminish the apparent size of the 
area throu'gh which they pass. Every precaution should be 
taken to preserve an open lawn, especially in front of the 
house. Roads and walks should be kept well to the bound- 




Fig. 199. — Driveway leading up to a farmhouse. 

aries wherever possible. Whether they should be straight 
or curved depends largely upon the size of the grounds, 
the contour of the land, and the general style of treatment. 
On areas of limited size, all walks and drives should be 
straight unless the contour of the land is such as to make 
curved ones more convenient. On larger areas curved 
walks and drives are more pleasing and graceful and should 
be used since they do not destroy the unity of the design. 



LAWN FERTILIZERS 387 

The Lawn. — The lawn adds much both to the appear- 
ance and value of the property. Before trees, shrubs, and 
flowers can be properly arranged a good lawn is necessary. 
Its construction, therefore, deserves most careful consider- 
ation. 

In the grading of the lawn one should endeavor to ob- 
tain good surface drainage. Except in formal work a level 
lawn should never be produced. It lacks the naturalness 
and variety that a lawn should possess. In grading a lawn 
the natural slopes and curves of the land should be pre- 
served. Nature seldom produces perfectly level surfaces. 

After the general slopes have been established, the land 
should be re-harrowed and the small, uneven places smoothed 
off. If the grading is begun in the fall and the land is then 
allowed to he over winter, the soil will have become well 
settled by spring and will be ready for the final grading 
before seeding and planting. 

A good soil is the first requisite in the construction of a 
permanent lawn. In changing a grade the top soil should 
first be carefully removed, the fill or cut made, and the top 
soil then replaced. After the grades have been established 
the soil should be thoroughly rolled and the small, uneven 
spots smoothed ofi with" a hand rake and by a second roll- 
ing the surface made smooth and even. 

Lawn Fertilizers. — If barnyard manure is to be used it 
should be plowed under or harrowed into the soil. Fresh 
manure is likely to contain weed seeds and its use should be 
avoided. 

A commercial fertilizer may be used to advantage after 
the grass is well started, but it should never be apphed at 
seeding time, as it may injure the young plants that come 
in contact with it during germination. Commercial fer- 



388 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




KINDS OF LAWN GRASS 389 

tilizers are easy to apply, contain no weed seeds, and may 
be readily procured. Some of the most popular forms of 
commercial fertilizers for lawns are ground bone, wood 
ashes, and high-grade complete fertilizers. 

Kinds of Lawn Grass. — The best grass for lawns is 
the Kentucky blue grass. Although this grass is rather 
slow in starting, it produces a permanent lawn of fine 
texture and of a rich green color. The crown of the plant 
sets very close to the ground and thus permits close clip- 
ping. After getting well established, Kentucky blue grass 
spreads very rapidly by underground rootstalks. 

Of the rapid growing kinds that may be used for quick 
effect EngHsh rye grass is one of the best. Although coarse 
in leaf it starts rapidly into growth, and covers the ground 
which might otherwise be taken up by weeds. Redtop 
is another quick-growing grass, producing a good lawn ef- 
fect the first season. It is of finer texture than rye grass 
but does not grow so rapidly. It is especially valuable 
upon poorer soils, in which it seems to thrive better than 
most other grasses. White clover is frequently used on 
lawns and makes very rapid growth. A mixture of blue 
grass, redtop, and white clover is excellent for new lawns. 
Bermuda grass is especially popular in the Southern States, 
but is easily killed by frosts. On very sandy soil the 
Rhode Island bent grass thrives well, while in very shady 
places the woodland meadow grass may be used. 

Grass seed is likely to contain weed seeds that will prove 
troublesome. It is best to buy lawn grass seed from a re- 
liable seedsman and to purchase only the purest grades on 
the market. If a large quantity is to be secured, a sample 
should be sent to the state experiment station to be tested 
for purity. 



390 LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

Sowing Lawn Seed. — In seeding a lawn, at least fifty 
pounds of seed per acre should be used. Thick seeding 
chokes out weeds and helps to produce a quick result. 
The seed should be sown when no wind is stirring, pref- 
erably early in the morning or late in the evening. To 
insure an even stand the seed should be divided into two 
equal parts. One part should be scattered lengthwise and 
the other crosswise of the lawn. 

After sowing the seed, unless followed by rain, the soil 
should be rolled. Raking or harrowing the soil after 
seeding is Hkely to bury the seed unevenly. 

Mowing the Lawn. — After the grass has grown to a 
height of from four to six inches it should be given the 
first clipping. Future cuttings should be made frequently 
enough to permit the clippings to remain on the lawn. 
These clippings form a mulch around the base of the plants 
and protect them from drying out during the summer 
months. Close cutting is a bad practice as all of the 
foliage is cut away and the soil about the roots is exposed 
directly to the wind and sun. 

Planting the Grounds. — The laying out and planting 
the grounds is usually of more importance than the archi- 
tecture of the buildings. Very ordinary looking buildings 
may be made attractive and homelike if the planting is 
properly done. Indeed the less prominent the architec- 
tural features the greater is the relative importance of 
planting. To unite the house with the roads, walks, 
lawns, and other surrounding features into one harmonious 
whole is the leading function of plantings. 

Before a planting plan is made, the ground should be 
studied with reference to the arrangement that will prove 
most serviceable. The farm grounds consist of three parts, 



PLANTING THE GROUNDS 391 

each having separate functions. The first of these is the 
entrance division. This consists of the entrance roads, 
walks, and the front lawn, together with all plantings bor- 
dering on the same. As the impression gained from this 
division is the one by which the remainder of the property 
is judged, its appearance is most important. The front 
yard should be neat and simple, and of such a character 
as to suggest dignity and hospitality. The second division 
is the living division. It is the out-of-doors living room. 
On the farm this division is frequently combined with the 
first, although it is often desirable to have this portion of 
the grounds screened from the entrance and service di- 
visions. The third is the service division and is the most 
necessary division of the farm grounds. It is commonly 
called the back yard. It is necessary to have some place 
for the entrance of supplies, the outgoing of wastes, the 
storage of garbage, ashes, and wood, the drying of clothes, 
and the performance of other important home duties. 
As these are not always pleasing to the sight it is desirable 
that this division be screened by plantings from the other 
divisions of the grounds. 

The design on the following page shows a desirable loca- 
tion for a house and barn on a small suburban lot in reference 
to the exposure and distances from the sides and front of 
the lot. The first number in the mass plantings indicates 
the number of plants to be used, the dots showing the loca- 
tion of each, while the number after the dash is the index 
number of the kind to be used. 

The drive is so designed and planted as to screen the 
view of the barn and its service yard from the road. The 
plantings consist largely of masses of hardy shrubs disposed 
around the foundation of the house, the boundaries and 



392 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 20 ] 



— Properly planned home grounds. (For explanation of numbers see the 
opposite page.) 



PLANTING THE GROUNDS 



393 



corners of the lot, leaving an unbroken lawn in front and a 
well screened and protected back lawn. A few trees are 
so disposed as to frame the view of the house from the road, 
to aid in screening the barn and to produce some shade over 
the back lawn. Hardy perennials and annuals are massed 
in the foreground of the shrubbery plantings about the 
back lawn and along the stepping-stone walk leading to the 
garden and back of the lot. 



Index 
Number 


Common Name of Plant 


Latin Name 


I 


Japanese Barberry 


Berhcris Thunhergil 


2 


Bridal Wreath Spirea 


Spiraa V anhouttci 


3 


Tartarian Honeysuckle 


Loiiicera Tartarica var. grand, rosea 


4 


Japanese Rose 


Rosa Rugosa 


5 


Lilac 


Syriiiga {In variety) 


6 


Peony 


PcBonia {In variety) 


7 


German Iris 


Iris Germanica {In variety) 


8 


Hardy Phlox 


Phlox decussata {In variety) 


9 


Lemoines Deutzia 


Deutzia Lemoinei 


lO 


Deciduous Tree 




II 


Evergreen 





Another function of plantings is to enhance the elements 
of beauty already existing. The style of architecture of 
the house, the position and character of trees already on 
the grounds, and the slope and general topography of the 
land should all be carefully studied. The most pleasing 
lines and portions of the house should be emphasized and 
carefully preserved. A wide sweep of open lawn with a 
border and background of trees and shrubbery is always a 
pleasing and acceptable sight. Vistas beyond the grounds, 
as of a distant wood, a winding river, or a neighboring farm, 
are often welcome sights that add to the pleasure and 
value of the home. It is especially important that these 



394 



LANDSCAPE GARDENING 




Fig. 202. An effective screen of spruce trees. 



vistas be carefully preserved. Plantings should conceal 
the defects and enhance the value of those parts that are 
most pleasing to the eye. 

Mass Planting. — To obtain the desired unity, character, 
variety, and naturalness, the gardener rehes mainly upon 
the use of masses. Single specimens or groups may be 
sparingly used, but only to break the monotony or to gain 
some special character in the design. Masses must be 
carefully designed to become expressive. The plants 
composing the mass should be selected with care. Each 
mass should consist only of a few kinds of plants. Where 
the mass is small it is well to select but one kind, while 
in larger masses more than one kind may be used to ad- 
vantage. Even in the larger masses, plants of the same 
kind should be grouped together. 



SELECTING PLANTS 395 

On the home grounds the larger proportion of the plant- 
ings should consist of hardy shrubs. Masses of shrubs 
may be used with excellent effect along the borders, in the 
corners, and to conceal defects and unsightly places. At 
the intersections of walks or drives and where a change in 
the direction of a walk is made, they may also be used to 










Fig. 203. — A farm home. To harmonize the building with its surroundings is the 
function of landscape gardening. 

advantage. About the base of buildings masses should 
be placed in such manner as to harmonize the building with 
its surroundings. 

Selecting Plants. — After determining upon the location 
and size of the masses, the plants best fitted to serve 
these purposes should be selected. The seasonal effect is 
a very important consideration. One should endeavor to 
select those kinds that are attractive during the longest 



396 LANDSCAPE GARDENING 

period of the year and which make such a combination of 
kinds as will produce a continuous effect. Fortunately, all 
plants do not bloom at the same time ; and the beauty of 
many plants consists not alone in their blossoms but in 
their richness of foliage, their beauty of form, and their 
highly colored fruit. These are the main considerations in 
the selection of plants for seasonal effects. 

EXERCISES 

1 . Describe the three principal styles of landscape gardening. 

2. Which would be most appropriate in the improvement 
of your home grounds? Why? Of the school grounds? 

3. Describe a site with which you are familiar that would 
be ideal for a building site. 

4. Where should the house be placed with reference to the 
barns ? 

5. Why should roads and walks be constructed only when 
they are essential ? 

6. When is a straight walk justifiable? A curved walk? 

7. What is the best grass for lawn purposes in your locality ? 

8. What grass would you use in starting a lawn to gain a 
quick effect? 

9. Describe some home grounds that are planted in a pleas- 
ing manner. 

10. What are the points to consider in the selection of the 
kinds and varieties of plants to use in beautifying the home 
grounds ? 

11. Visit some of the neighboring home grounds and study 
how they might be improved by a rearrangement of the plant- 
ings. 

12. Draw a map of the homestead, showing lawn, house, 
garden, barn, orchard, etc. Make the map scale large enough 
so that the details will stand out clearly. 



HOME PROJECTS 397 

HOME PROJECTS 

1. Early in the spring apply a good dressing of well-decom- 
posed manure to the lawn. Rake the coarsest of this off when 
the grass is just beginning to grow up through it and sow grass 
seed at the rate of 25 pounds per acre. Roll the lawn care- 
fully. Mow it once a week or as often as is necessary to permit 
the clippings to remain without raking. Keep an accurate 
record of each operation in your notebook. 

2. Draw a plan of the home grounds to a definite scale, 
showing the location of buildings, existing walks, drives, trees, 
plantings, and boundaries. Re-design the walks and drives 
if necessary. Design the plantings as explained in the text, 
giving the reason for the location, form, and size of each. Pre- 
sent this plan to the teacher for consultation before selecting 
the kinds. 



CHAPTER XX 



TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

Trees. — In selecting trees for home planting the fol- 
lowing requirements should be considered : form, hardiness, 
adaptability, rapidity of growth, shade production, free- 
dom from insects and diseases, neatness, and beauty. Wild 

trees may be used, 
but they are less 
likely to withstand 
the shock of trans- 
planting than those 
that have been pre- 
viously transplanted 
in the nursery. 

The general 
method of planting 
shade trees and the 
precautions to be ob- 
served are the same 
as those for plant- 
ing fruit trees. (See 
Chapter X.) 

The Oaks. — Of all the trees that may be used on the 
home grounds, the oaks are undoubtedly the best. They 
are beautiful, long lived, and little subject to insects and 
disease. The white oak is probably the best known. 
The red oak thrives on a comparatively poor soil, develops 

398 




Fig. 204. — A beautiful giant oak tree. 



THE MAPLES 



399 



a straight, sturdy trunk, a symmetrical top, and its foliage 
turns a brilliant color in the fall. The scarlet oak is much 
like the red oak although smaller in size. Its foliage be- 
comes brilliantly colored in the fall. The pin oak grows 
taller and more slender than most other oaks, and has an 
unusually straight stem. It is especially adapted for street 
planting and makes a very desirable lawn tree. 

The Elm. — The American elm is the stateliest of trees. 
It prefers fertile soil and an abundance of moisture. Under 
these conditions, it 
is a comparatively 
rapid grower. As a 
street tree it com- 
bines more desirable 
qualities than any 
other, although it 
grows too large for 
narrow streets. 

The Maples. — No 
trees have been more 
widely used for plant- 
ing than the maples. 
They are very satis- 
factory as shade, or- 
namental, or street 
trees. The white, 
silver, or soft maple 
is largely planted 
because of its rapid growth, although it is a short-lived 
tree, very susceptible to borers, and subject to spHtting 
and breaking. The Norway maple is the best tree for 
streets of moderate width and is a desirable lawn tree. 




Fig 205. A fine specimen of sugar maple. 



400 TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

It is one of the first maples to come into foliage in the 
spring and the last to drop its leaves in the fall. The 
red-leaved variety of the Norway maple is an especially 
attractive tree. The common red maple thrives best in 
a moist soil and is sometimes used as a street tree although 
it is more suitable for lawn planting. In the fall the 
coloring of the fohage is brilHant, and in the spring its 
blossoms make a very attractive effect. The sugar 
maple is the most widely known and one of the best of 
all the maples. It is a larger tree than the Norway maple 
although in many other respects so much like it that the 
two are often hard to identify. The ash-leaved maple, 
or box elder, is frequently planted as a lawn tree and it 
adapts itself well to adverse conditions. It is a short- 
lived tree and is not recommended for general planting. 

The Beech. — The beech makes one of the most at- 
tractive and beautiful lawn trees. The American beech 
is largely used, although there are many ornamental forms 
of the European species, such as the purple-leaved, cut- 
leaved, and drooping beeches that are also popular. 

Other Deciduous Trees. — There are many other de- 
sirable kinds of trees which are all valuable under special 
conditions. When quick effects are desired, the poplars 
are favorite trees. The graceful white birches, the golden 
willows, and the stately sycamores are other attractive 
lawn trees. 

The Evergreens. — There are few home grounds where 
evergreens cannot be advantageously used for producing 
permanent screens, windbreaks, or hedges. They are very 
valuable if planted sparingly about the lawn, as they con- 
trast well with the deciduous trees and enliven the land- 
scape during the winter season. When used too freely 



THE SPRUCES 401 

about the grounds, they produce a somber effect. They 
should never be used near the south or east side of buildings, 
where they may shade them during the winter months. 
When placed well in the background of shrubs or decidu- 
ous trees, they give excellent results. The beauty of all 
evergreens depends upon the preservation of a good healthy 




Fig. 206. A windbreak of Norway spruce. 

growth about the base of the tree, whether they are used 
as hedges, windbreaks, or lawn specimens. 

The Spruces. — Spruces are the fastest growing of all 
evergreens, are very hardy, and for quick effects are gen- 
erally the best. They are much used for windbreaks and 
hedges as well as for lawn planting. The Norway spruce 
is one of the best. It adapts itself well to any soil and 
almost any condition. The tree is clean, trim, and bright 
both in summer and winter. The trees grow big and 

M. AND H. PLANT PROD. — 26 



402 TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

thick and will live long. The Colorado blue spruce is one 
of the most beautiful of the evergreens. The branches are 
produced in whorls around the trunk and the foliage is 
dense and of an intense blue. It thrives in almost any 
soil and locality, is a vigorous grower, and does well in 
cold, exposed situations. 

The Pines. — The white pine is the most valuable species 
of pines. The foliage is softer and finer than that of most 
other evergreens. The young trees look trim and neat all 
the year round, and the old ones are very picturesque. The 
Austrian pine is a species that is especially recommended 
for planting in the Middle West. The growth is very dense 
and the trees grow to a large size.. Planted singly on the 
lawn the trees produce a beautiful effect, and when planted 
in groups, the dark foliage shows in excellent contrast with 
spruce or other evergreens. 

The Hemlocks. — These are also very popular evergreens 
for lawn planting and for hedges. They stand shearing well 
and will grow in the shade. For planting in groups with 
other evergreens they are excellent. The trees do best with 
a northern or eastern exposure, protected from drying winds. 
They prefer a moist soil. The trees should be frequently 
topped to maintain a dense growth of the lower branches. 

The Arbor Vitse. — These evergreens, commonly known 
as the white cedars, are quite different from other ever- 
greens and very beautiful when properly used. They are 
especially valuable in grouping with other evergreens or 
in planting as screens or hedges. They stand pruning very 
well and can be trained to almost any shape. 

Shrubs. — Since the planting of the home grounds neces- 
sitates the use of hardy shrubs, a few of the most important 
kinds are here considered. 



BRIDAL WREATH SPIREA 



403 



Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thunhergii). — The 
Japanese barberry is a slow-growing shrub, especially de- 
sirable for low, ornamental hedges and for foreground plant- 
ing of shrubbery masses. It is very graceful in its habit 
of growth, producing small, delicate, light green leaves 
upon gracefully drooping branches. The leaves turn a 
beautiful scarlet in the fall, and a briUiant winter effect 
is produced by the 
scarlet berries which 
remain on the twigs. 
It is perfectly hardy 
and grows well upon 
the Hghter, well- 
drained soils, and is 
not susceptible to 
the San Jose scale. 

Bridal Wreath 
Spirea (Spircea Van- 
houttei). — This is 
the most popular 
spring-flowering spi- 
rea. Its remarkable 
wealth of bloom and 
beautiful foliage, 
produced on grace- ^^^- ^**^" 

ful branches bending to the ground, makes it exceedingly 
attractive. It is very hardy and grows well upon any 
moderately rich and well-drained soil. On good soil it 
is a rapid grower, attaining a height of five to seven 
feet. It is particularly adapted for mass planting about 
the porch or buildings, or along walks, drives, or the 
boundaries of the lawn. 




Bridal wreath in bloom. 



404 TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

Weigela (Diervilla florida) . — The weigela is a very popu- 
lar and effective free-flowering shrub, which is covered 
the first of June with a mass of rose-colored flowers. It 
grows to a height of five to seven feet, is perfectly hardy, 
and may be used on the north side of buildings, or in other 
partly shaded situations. 

Golden Bell {Forsythia intermedia) . — In very early 
spring, before the leaves appear, this shrub bursts into bloom 
with a wealth of bright golden-yellow flowers. The shrub 
is hardy and easily grown, even on very light soils. The 
plant is a vigorous grower and attains a height of six to 
ten feet. The fohage, being of a clean, light-green color, 
produces an excellent background for low-growing shrubs. 

Bush Honeysuckle {Lonicera tartarica) . — The bush 
honeysuckle is an excellent ornamental shrub that acquires 
a very graceful form. The foliage is abundant and of a 
dark bluish-green color. The flowers of the several varieties 
are white, pink, rose, or deep red, and possess a pleasing 
fragrance. The red, orange, or yellow berries are produced 
abundantly and are extremely ornamental in late summer 
and fafl. The shrub is perfectly hardy and grows to a 
height of eight to ten feet. 

Mock Orange or Syringa (Philadelphus coronarius). — 
There are several varieties of this well-known shrub that 
vary more or less in the size of their blossoms and height of 
the plant. It is prized especially for its fragrant white blos- 
soms that are abundantly produced in June. It is very 
hardy and easily grown on almost any kind of soil. Most of 
the common varieties attain a height of eight to ten feet 
and are valuable for the background of shrubbery masses. 

Yellow Currant {Rihes aureum) . — The flowering currant 
is very popular as a dooryard shrub. Its fragrant yellow 



JAPANESE ROSE 



405 



blossoms and its clean-looking foliage make it very at- 
tractive. Growing only to a height of three to five feet, 
it is especially desirable for planting about the home and 
in the foreground of higher growing shrubs. It is very 
hardy and does well in partly shaded locations. 

Hardy Hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata grandiflord). 
— This is a very attractive shrub, producing excellent flower 
effects in late summer and fall. It is not entirely hardy 



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Fig. 208. — Japanese snowball. 



in many of the northern sections and therefore needs a 
favored location and a rich soil. It is especially desirable 
for formal effects and should be pruned well back in early 
spring to produce the best flowers. 

Japanese Rose (Rosa rugosa) . — The Japanese rose is 
a favored shrub valued especially for its vigorous dark-green 
foliage and its large, single-petaled flowers that are pro- 
duced continuously during late spring and summer. The 
flowers are succeeded by large red hips which are almost as 



4o6 TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

ornamental as the roses themselves. The plant is very 
hardy and especially beautiful when planted in masses. 
It grows to a height of four to five feet and does well even 
in partly shaded locations. 

Lilac {Syringa vulgaris) . — The lilacs are hardy plants 
and are especially desirable for backgrounds of shrubbery 
masses and for screens. 

Japanese Snowball {Viburnum tomentosum plicatum). 
— The flowers of this shrub are similar to the common 
snowball, but seem larger and of a purer white against the 
heavy dark-green foliage. It grows to a height of eight 
to ten feet and thrives well along the north side of buildings 
or other partly shaded locations. It is not entirely hardy 
in the northern districts. Unlike the common snowball 
it is seldom troubled with plant Hce. 

Spirea Anthony Water er. — This spirea is a low, summer- 
flowering shrub, blooming from the middle of June until 
fall. It is an excellent hardy shrub for summer effect and 
especially adapted for the foreground planting of shrub- 
bery masses. 

Ornamental Vines. — Vines are as necessary as trees 
and shrubs in landscape decoration. By toning down the 
stiff, bold angles and bare surfaces of buildings, they pro- 
duce a harmonious effect that can be obtained in no other 
way. On small places they are particularly valuable. They 
grow rapidly where other ornamental plants would have no 
room for development, and display their beauty on steep 
walls, columns, and trellises. If correctly placed, they 
embelKsh rather than conceal the architecture. By plant- 
ing the less sightly portions and leaving the more beautiful 
elements of the building exposed, even the most ordinary- 
looking houses may often be made attractive. 



ORNAMENTAL VINES 



407 



Many of the vines, as the wistaria, climbing roses, and 
clematis, prefer a southern exposure, while the woodbine 
and American ivy thrive in shady places. For covering 
screens, stumps, rocky places, bare tree trunks, walls, 
and fences they are excellent. 

Of the flowering vines the clematis is one of the most 
popular. There are two classes of this vine, commonly 
known as the large-flowering and the small-flowering 

clematis. Clematis Jack- 

manii is one of the best 
of the large-flowering 
varieties, while Clematis 
paniculata is the most 
popular of the small- 
flowering clematis. 

The wistaria is another 
one of the most beauti- 
ful and effective of the 
flowering vines, but it 
is rather slow in coming 
into blossom, frequently 
requiring five to six years. It prefers a southern exposure 
and a moderately rich, well-drained soil. 

The honeysuckle thrives and blooms abundantly either 
in a southern exposure or in shaded or partly shaded loca- 
tions. Even upon poor soil on the north side of buildings 
the honeysuckle grows better than most other vines. It is 
a desirable vine for porches, screens, walls, or for covering 
bare places under trees. 

Roses are an extremely popular class of vines although 
they require much care. A southern exposure is preferred 
with a moderately rich clay loam soil. The Crimson 




Fig. 209. — A beautiful effect produced by ivy. 



4o8 TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

Rambler, Dorothy Perkins, and Lady Gay are three of the 
most beautiful climbing roses. These vines are not so sus- 
ceptible to mildew as some of the other varieties, and are 
vigorous, hardy, and very free flowering. 

Annual vines are often desirable when producing quick 
effects. Screens may be temporarily produced by them until 
perennial vines become estabhshed. Of the annual vines 











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I 'sicl 1)1/ court, sy of The Conard and Jones Co. 
Fig. 210. — Dorothy Perkins rose vines. 

the flowering nasturtium, morning glory, wild cucumber, 
moon vine, and cobea are especially valuable. Moon vines 
and cobea, started indoors three to four weeks before plant- 
ing outside, will often grow twenty to twenty-five feet in a 
single season. 

Hardy Perennials. — There is not a time during the 
whole season in which some hardy perennial is not in 
bloom. During the months of July and August, when al- 
most all the woody shrubs have ceased blooming, these 



ANNUALS 409 

plants may be depended upon to make a flower display. 
When once planted, they appear year after year and flower 
abundantly. Their ability to thrive with little care makes 
them a desirable class of plants for the home grounds. 
For any soil or any location there is to be found some 
perennial adapted to the conditions. 

Perennials are especially suitable for border planting, 
and when placed in front of shrubbery masses, they are 
very effective. They may be used along garden walks, 
walls, fences, against buildings, and in other places about 
the home grounds. Many of the perennials can be grown 
from seed. 

Of the old-time favorites there are the foxglove, holly- 
hock, Sweet William, and phlox. Then there are the 
columbine, blanket-flower, coreopsis, peony, and poppy, 
all favorites for their flowering effects. For planting 
about ponds or upon deep, moist soil there are the iris, 
forget-me-not, lily-of-the-valley, bee balm, trillium, car- 
dinal flower, and the ornamental grasses ; and for late sum- 
mer and fall effects we have the hardy chrysanthemum, 
golden glow, and aster enriching the landscape with their 
brightness of color. 

Annuals. — Annuals are essential for producing the best 
and most continuous display of flowers during the summer 
months. They are also especially valuable in producing 
quick effects. When planted in the foreground of shrubs 
or among perennials, they produce a pleasing effect. In 
the free and natural style of landscape gardening they 
should be planted along the borders of other plantings, and 
when so arranged enhance the beauty of the entire design. 

Annuals are very easy to grow. Almost all of them 
may be grown successfully by sowing the seeds directly in 



4IO TREES, SHRUBS, VINES, AND FLOWERS 

permanent beds ; but usually better plants are obtained 
by seeding in hotbeds or boxes of earth and transplanting 
to the open ground. Frequently the plants come into 
blossom a month earlier when grown in this manner, and 
a longer flowering season is thus obtained. 

The kinds of annuals are so numerous that a selection is 
largely a matter of personal preference. The sweet alys- 
sum, dusty miller, candytuft, and lobeHa make excellent 
edging plants. For summer flower displays, nasturtium, 
petunia, coxcomb, verbena, annual phlox, poppy, salvia, 
zinnia, and balsam are all easily grown and very effective. 
Portulaca is well adapted for covering dry, sandy banks. 
Heliotrope, marguerite, and mignonette furnish our gar- 
dens with delightful fragrance. 

EXERCISES 

1. Name some of the important spring flowering shrubs, 
both wild and cultivated, of your locaHty. Name some of the 
summer and fall flowering shrubs. 

2. Do you know of any ornamental shrubs of special value 
for their foUage effects? For their fruit? For the color of 
their bark? 

3. Name some shrubs especially valuable for hedges. 

4. Name some shrubs used for the foreground planting of 
masses. For background planting. 

5. Name as many shrubs as you can that are planted on 
your home grounds. On the school grounds. 

6. What is a deciduous tree? 

7. Explain the proper method of transplanting a tree. 

8. Name and describe some trees that are valuable as street 
trees. As lawn trees. 

9. Name and describe from sample branches six important 
ornamental vines of your locality. 



FLOWER GARDEN MAKING CONTEST 411 

10. Name the kinds of perennials growing on your home 
grounds. 

FLOWER . GARDEN MAKING CONTEST 

(Adapted from " Educational Contests in Agriculture and Home 
Economics." Ofl&ce of Experiment Station, Bulletin 255.) 

Rules Governing the Contest 

1. Requirements for entry : 

(a) All contestants shall be between the ages of 12 and 
20 years. 

(b) Each contestant shall be given a plot of ground, of 
the size specified by the committee in charge, located at the 
home of the contestant, on which to grow flowers, the seeds to 
be furnished by the committee in charge; each contestant to 
plant, cultivate, and care for the plot assigned without any 
outside assistance. 

(c) Each contestant shall keep an accurate record of 
the time devoted to the garden, the varieties planted, the yield 
of each variety, the cost of seed, etc., and shall submit his 
record to the committee in charge. 

(d) Each contestant shall be required to write an essay 
of not more than 500 and not less than 300 words, describing 
the work in the garden, the time applied, and the pleasure de- 
rived from observing the growth of the flowers. These essays 
shall be submitted to the persons in charge not less than three 
days before the date of the contest awards. 

2. Basis of Awards : 



Essay and record 


10% 


Grouping of flowers 


25% 


Success in cultivation 


40% 


Color scheme of flowers 


25% 


Total 


100% 



APPENDIX 

I. PLANTING TABLE FOR FLOWERS 



Name of 
Flower 


Time to Sow 


Depth 

TO 

Plant 


Time of 
Flowering 


Color of 


Height 
(feet) 


In- 


Out- 


(inches) 


Early 


Main 


r LOWERb 




doors 


doors 


Crop 


Crop 






Alyssum 


Mar. 


Apr. 


h 


July 


Aug. 


White 


\ 


sweet . . 




Sept. 












Aster 


Feb. 


May 


\ 


July to 


Sept. to 


blue, red 




China . . 


Apr. 






Aug. 


Oct. 


white 


I 


Balsam. . 


Mar. 


May 


\ 


May 


July 


red, white, 
pink 


2 


Carnation 


Feb. 


Apr. 


\ 


July 


Sept. 


pink, red, 


I 


(Margue- 












white, var. 




rite) 
















Candytuft 




Apr. 
July 


\ 




June to 
Sept. 


red, white 


\ 


Castor Oil 


Mar. 
May 


June 


2 






insignificant 


2 to 8 


Cosmos 


Feb. 
Apr. 


May 


\ 


Aug. 


Oct. to 

Nov. 


pink, white, 
yellow 


4 to lo 


Foxglove . 


Jan. 


May 


not 
covered 


Aug. 


July of 
follow- 
ing year 


pink, white 


2 to 4 


Lobelia 


Aug. 


Apr. 


1 


Next 


Aug. 


carmine 


1 


cardinalis 








July 








Mignonette 


Feb. 


Apr. 


1 

4 


May to 


July to 


greenish 


I 




Mar. 


May 




July 


Oct. 






Morning- 


Feb. 


May 


I 


July 


Aug. to 


blue, red, 


15 to 30 


glory . . 


Apr. 








Oct. 


white, var. 




Nasturtium 


Mar. 
Apr. 


May 


I 


June 


July to 
Oct. 


scarlet, 
yellow, 
maroon 


I to 5 


Pansy . . 


Jan. 


June 


\ 


May to 


Sept. to 


purple. 


\ to I 




Feb. 


July 




June 


Oct. 


blue, white, 
yellow 




Petunia 


Mar. 
Apr. 


May 


not 
covered 


May 


Sept. 


magenta, 
white 


I or 2 


Phlox, 


Feb. 


Mar. 


\ 


May 


July to 


white, red, 


\ to I 


annual 




May 






Aug. 


yellow, 
maroon 





413 



414 



APPENDIX 
II. PLANTING AND SEED TABLE 



Name of 
Vegetable 



Beans, bush . . . 
Beans, pole and 

Lima 

Beets 

Brussels sprouts 
Cabbage, early 

Cabbage, late. 

Carrots 

Cauliflower . . . 
Celery, early . 
Celery, late . . 



Corn, early . . 
Corn, late. . . 
Cucumbers. . 
Eggplant . . . 
Endive 



Kale 

Kohl-rabi . . 
Lettuce. . . . 
Muskmelon 
Okra 



Onion, sets. 
Onion, seeds 
Parsley. . . . 
Parsnips . . . 
Peas, early 



Peas, late 

Peppers 

Potatoes, early 
Potatoes, late. . 
Pumpkins 



Date of Planting 



Seeds, 
first crop 



May 

May 15-31 
April 15-30 



May. 



May 1-15 
May 15-31 
May 15-31 



May. 



April 15-30 
May 15-31 



Radishes, early 
Radishes, me- 
dium and late 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Spinach ..:.... 



Squash 

Sweet potatoes 

Tomatoes 

Turnips 

Watermelons . . 



April 15-30 

May 

April 15-30 

May 

April 15-30 

May 1-15 



April 15-30 
Ma: 



ay 

May 15-31 

April 15-30 



May 

April 15-30 
May 1-15 
April 15-30 

May 15-31 



Plants, 
first crop 



May 20-31 



May 

April 15-30 



May. 



May 

April 15-30 



May 20-31 
May 20-31 
April 20-30 



May 1-15 
April 20-30 
May 20-31 
May 15-31 



May 15-31 



April 15-30 
May 15-31 



May 20-31 
May 15-31 
May 15-31 



Seeds for 
succession 



June. 



May-June . 



June (plants) 



June. 
June. 



June (plants) 
May 



May-June . . . Sept . 
June. 



Fall and 
winter use 



July- Aug . 



June (plants) 



June 

July- Aug . 



June- July. . 



May 15-June 



June, 



May. 



June. 



o.S 

a 

Q 



June 

June 10-20 



Aug.-Sept. 



July- Aug 



1-2 



i-i 






i-i 






^1 



2-3 

4-5 



From Bulletin. "The Home Vegetable Garden " by C. W. Waid, Michigan Agricultural College. 



APPENDIX 415 

FOR VEGETABLES FOR THE HOME GARDEN 



Distance 

Apart of 

Plants in 

Rows 



Hills 



18-30 


5-6 




2-3 


18-24 




I2-l8 




18-24 






3-4 


18-24 






4-5 




5-6 



18-24 

24-36 
48-60 
24-36 



48-60 
18-30 



15-18 
9-15 
12-18 

72-96 



36-84 



18-36 

60-72 



DrUls 



8-10 
10-12 
12-18 



12-15 
8-15 

6-8 
4-12 
12-18 



2-3 
6-10 

3-4 

Drilled 
Drilled 



Drilled 

Drilled 
6-10 
3-4 
4-6 



■4-6 



For a 100 Foot Row 



1-2 pt. 



1 pt. 

2 oz. 
i oz. 
J oz. 

i oz. 



t oz. 
J oz. 

5Pt. 

ipt. 

i oz. 



i oz. . . 
I oz. . . 

1-2 oz. 

z oz. . . 



J oz. . . 

5 oz. . . 

3-4 oz. 



Plants 



100-150' 

35-65* 

80-100 

50-75 
50-90 

50-75 



50-75 
250-300 
200-250 

50-65* 
35-50* 

80-100* 

25-50 
75-100 

80-150 
120-150 
100-300 

20-25* 

40-50 



foz. :;: 




oz 


120-200 


I qt. ... 




I qt. 




i oz 

8-10 lb. 


65-80 


8-10 lb. . 




I oz 


12-15* 


I oz 








I oz 


120-200 


I oz 




I oz 





.15-35* 

65-75 

35-75 



45-65 
50-80 

6c^85 

95-120 

90-105 

100-150 
75-110 
100-130 
120-130 
130-150 

65-90 
75-100 
60-80 
150-160 
90-130 

90-120 
60-80 
60-90 
120-150 



25-50 
130-150 

90-120 
125-160 

40-80 

65-90 
100-140 

80-100 
100-140 
100-140 

30-40 

35-50 

75-100 

120-180 

30-60 

60-125 
120-130 
100-140 

60-80 
100-150 



150-200 
1,500 



8,500 

8,500 
20,000 
10,500 
20,000 
20,000 



1, 00a 

7,800 

18,000 

8,500 

8,500 

23,000 

1,600 

500 



7,000 
50-150 



50-100 
4,500 



10,000 

10,000 
13,000 
3,000 
2,500 



10,000 

13,000 

125-150 



^1a 



|2 
< a 



5-10 

5-10 
7-10 
5-10 
5-10 

5-10 
12-18 

5-10 
10-20 
10-20 

5-8 

5-8 

6-10 

5-10 

5-10 

5-10 

S-io 

6-8 

7-10 

6-10 



7-10 
10-18 
10-10 

6-10 

6-10 
9-14 



7-10 

3-6 

3-6 
4-8 
7-12 
7-12 

7-10 



6-12 

4-8 

7-10 



P3 

o Q 
w 



90 
90 

140 

90 
90 

90 

80 
80 
60 
60 

85 
85 

8s 
75 
85 

90 
90 
85 
85 
80 









Hills. 



4i6 



APPENDIX 



III. Legal weight per measured bushel in most states for the 

COMMON FIELD SEEDS, AND RATE OF SEEDING PER ACRE 





Pounds per Bushel 


Rate of Seed per Acre 


Alfalfa, humid sections . . 


60 


15 to 25 lb. 


Alfalfa, semiarid .... 


60 


2 to 10 lb. 


Alsike clover 


60 


6 to 10 lb. 


Barley 


48 


i| to 2 bu. 


Corn in ear 


70 


8 to 12 lb. 


Corn shelled 


56 


8 to 12 lb. 


Mammoth clover .... 


60 


10 to 12 lb. 


Oats 


32 


2 to 3 bu. 


Peas 


60 


2 to 3I bu. 


Potatoes 


60 


10 to 15 bu. 


Red clover 


60 


10 to 12 lb. 


Soy beans, broadcast . . . 


60 


90 lbs. 


Soy beans, in drills . . . 


60 


20 to 60 lb. 


Timothy 


45 


10 to 12 lb. 


Vetch 


60 


30 to 60 lb. 


Wheat 


60 


i^ to 2 bu. 



INDEX 



M. AND H. PLANT PROD. 27 



INDEX 



Agronomy, ii 
Alfalfa, 141 

acreage to sow, 154 

artificial cultures for inoculation, 156 

beneficial effect on soil, 142 

curing, 150 

danger of bloat, 152 

depth to sow, 146 

enemies, 159 

exercises, 159 

fall plowing, 143 

feeding value, 157 

growth, habits of, 141 

hard seeds, 145 

home projects, 160 

inoculation methods, 155 

loss of feeding value, 151 

nitrogen gatherer, 141 

rate of seeding, 146 

root system, 141, 142 

rotation, 156 

seed bed, 142 

seed production, 152 

seed testing, 144 

seeding methods, 148 

soil acidity, 158 

soil inoculation, 154 

soiling and pasture crop, 152 

sowing with niu-se crop, 147 

sowing without nurse crop, 145 

spring plowing, 143 

stacking alfalfa, 153 

sweet clover soil for inoculation, 
154 

tester, simple plate, 144 

varieties, 141 
Alsike clover, 125 

adaptation, 126 

description, 125 

uses, 126 
Annuals, 408 
Aphis, 272 



Apples, 301 

care of trees, 249 

cultivation, 304 

planting, 302 

propagation, 302 

varieties, 244, 304 
Arbor vitae, 402 
Arsenate of lead, 286 
Artificial cultures for inoculation. 

Bacterial diseases, 278 
Barberry, Japanese, 403 
Barley, 79 

classification, 80 

diseases, 85 

habits of growth, 81 

harvesting, 82 

history, 79 

home projects, 89 

hot-water treatment for smut, 

insect enemies, 85 

judging, 60 

marketing, 84 

rotation, 84 

score card, 87 

scoring, 88 

shocking, 83 

smut, 85, 86 

soil, 81 

sowing seed, 82 

straw, objections to, 82 

testing the seed, 82 

threshing, 84 

treatment for smut, 85 

trueness to type, 60 

variety differences, 84 
Beech, 400 

Bees in white clover regions, 1 26 
Bitter rot, 276 
Blackberries, as 

culture, 33S 

propagation, 333 



156 



86 



419 



420 



INDEX 



lilackberrics -Conlinmd 

pruning, 334 

soil, 333 

varieties, 335 
Black knot, 278 
Blight, leaf, 278 

Blue grass {see Kentucky blue grass) 
Bordeaux mixture, 283 
Borers, 273 
Brambles, ii^, 
Breeding, 30, 112 

centgener method, 1 1 2 

corn, 39, 50 

grain, 112 
Bridal wreath spirea, 403 
Bridge grafting, 235 
Brome grass, 169, 170 

contamination of seed, lOy 

harvesting, 170 

history, 169 

rotation, 170 
Brown rot, 276 
Buckwheat, 107 

adaptation, 108 

enemies, no 

exercises, no 

growth, habits of, 107 

harvesting, 109 

history, 107 

home projects, 1 1 1 

rate of seeding, 109 

rotation, no 

seed bed, 108 

sowing seed, 109 

threshing, 109 

uses, no 

varieties, 107 
Budding, 230 

cutting buds, 231 

inserting buds, 231 

selecting buds, 231 
Bulb, 210 
Bulbels, 211 
Bulblet, 2n 
Bush fruits, 329 
Bush honeysuckle, 404 

Cankerworm, 269 
Capillary water, 13 
Centgener method of breeding, 112 
Cherries, 315 
culture, 315 



Cherries — Conlinucd 

harvesting, 310 

soil, 315 
Chewing insects, 268 
Cleft grafting, 235 
Clematis, 407 
Clover, 120 

alsike, i 25 

mammoth, 125 

red, 120 

redtop, 171 
Codling moth, 268 
Cold frames, 361 
Colorado beetle, 180 
Commercial fertiUzers for vegetables, 

350 

lime, 351 

nitrogen, 350 

phosphorus, 351 

potassium, 351 
Cooperation in marketing, 378 
Copper sulphate solution, 283 
Cormels, 211 
Corms, 211 
Corn, 17 

acclimatization, 50 

breeding, 39, 50 

butts, 50 

checking, 27, 32 

circumference of ear, 54 

classification, 17 

cob, 47 

color of grain and cob, 47 

"corn tree," 3^1 

cultivation, 27 

culture, 24 

curing seed, 32 

dent com, 20 

devices for curing, 35 

drilling, 27 

car-to-row method of breeding, 39 

exercises, 37 

flint com, 19 

fodder, 28 

germination, 31 

growth, habits of, 2 1 

harvesting, 28 

harvesting for silage, 29 

height of ear, i^ 

history, 17 

home projects, 38 

improvement, 41 



INDEX 



421 



Corn — Continued 

judging. 41. 4y 

kernels, 52, hi 

leaves, 22 

length of ear, 54 

market condition, 49 

mixture, 49 

moisture in seed, ,-14 

oil in kernels, 24 

percentage of grain to cob, 

planting, 26 

plowing for, 24 

pod com, 17 

pollination, 23 

pop com, 18 

purity, 23 

roots, 22 

rules for judging, 45, 59 

sample for exhibition, 42 

score card, 43 

scoring, 41, 59 

seed curing, 32, 35 

seed moisture, 34 

seed selection, 30, 32, 41 

seed storage, 34 

seed testing, 30 

shape of ear, 46 

silage, 29 

soft com, 18 

space between kernels, 56 

space between rows, 55 

stover, 28 

sweet com, 19 

testing the planter, 26 

tillering, 22 

tips, 50 

type, 46 

uses, 24 

varieties, 21 

vitality, 32, ^:^ 

Yankee, 19 
Cotton, 188 

breeding, 193 

characteristics, 188 

climatic conditijns, 194 

cultivation, 195 

diseases, 199 

exercises, 200 

fiber, 190 

flowers, 188 

harvesting, 196 

home projt'cts, joo 



Cotton — Continued 

insect enemies, 198 

long-staple, 191 

marketing, 198 

planting, 195 

seed, 191 

soils, 194 

uses, 198 

varieties, 189, 191 
Cover crops, 104 

for garden, 352 

for humus, 352 

for orchard, 256 

plowing under, 258 

seed table, 258 
Crops, leguminous, 120 
Cross breeding, 1 1 7 
Crown gall, 281 
Crowns, 212 
Cultivation, 15, 304 

orchard, 253 

peach, 312 

vegetable garden, 355 
Currants, 329 

diseases, 332 

fertilizers, 331 

harvesting, 331 

insects, 332 

pruning, 330 

spraying, 332 
Cuttings, 217 

classification, 220 

exercises, 226 

external requirements, 217 

hardwood, 222 

heel, 224 

home projects, 226 

leaf, 221 

mallet, 224 

moisture, 219 

one-eye, 224 

root, 221 

simple, 223 

softwood, 225 

soil, 219 

stem, 222 

temperature, 217 

tuber, 220 

Dewberries, i^^,^ 
culture, ?,:^?, 
propagation, 333 



422 



INDEX 



Dewbei-ries — Conlinued 

pruning, 334 

soil, m 
Diervilla, 404 
Diseases, alfalfa, 159 

barley, 85 

cotton, 198 

fruit, 274 

fungous, 274 

potatoes, 180 

wheat, 76 
Dissemination of seeds, 119 
Distances of planting fruits, 244 
Distribution of produce, 379 
Division as means of propagation, 212 

Elm, 399 

Enemies of the pomes, 306 
Ergot, 105 

Evergreens for home planting, 400 
Exercises, 16, 37, 65, 99, 106, no, 119, 
139, 159, 187, 20D, 208, 215, 226, 238, 
250, 265, 281, 289, 299, 308, 317, 336, 
346, 353. 358, 367, 374. 381, 396, 410 
Fertility, maintaining orchard, 255 
Fertilizers, 15 

barnyard manure, 259 

commercial, 259, 350 

cover crops, 256 

essential, 15 

for alfalfa, 147 

for lawns, 387 

for vegetables, 348 
Fire blight, 278 
Flats for starting plants, 372 
Flower garden making contest, 411 
Flowering currant, 404 
Forsythia, 404 
Fruit, diseases, 274 

grading, 296 

growing, 240 

insects, 267 

packages, 297 

packing, 297 

pests, 267 

storage, 298 

thinning, 291 
Fruits, bush, 329 
Fungus, shot-hole, 277 

Germination, requirements, 203 
tests, 202 
time required, 205 



Glass structures, 360 
Golden bell, 404 
Gooseberries, 329 

diseases, 332 

fertilizers, 331 

harvesting, 331 

insects, 332 

pruning, 330 

spraying, 332 
Grading fruits, 296 
Grafting, 228 

bridge, 235 

cleft, 235 

functions, 228 

inserting buds, 232 

hmitations, 22;) 

tongue, 234 
Grain breeding, 1 1 2 

centgener method, 112 

crossing method, 117 

dissemination, 119 

exercises, 119 

head-to-row method, 114 

home project, 119 

selection method, 112 
Grapes, 319 

culture, 319 

diseases, 322 

insects, 322 

propagation, 319 

pruning, 320 

score card, 336 

spraying, 323 
Greenhouse, construction, 363 

soils, 364 

temperature, 365 

watering, 366 

Hardy hydrangea, 405 
Hardy perennials, 408 
Harvesting, alfalfa, 149 

barley, 82 

brome grass, 170 

buckwheat, 109 

corn, 28 

fruits, 293 

oats, 94 

peas, 131 

potatoes, 181, 182 

red clover, 122 

redtop, 172 

rye, 103 



INDEX 



423 



Harvesting — Continued 

soy beans, 137 

timothy, 163 

vegetables, 376 

wheat, 73 
Hay crops, 161 

alfalfa, 149 . 

clovers, 120, 126 

rye, 104, 128 

soy beans, 134 

vetch, 128 
Head- to-row breeding, 114 
HeeUng in, 246 
Hellebore, 287 
Hemlock, 402 
Home gardening, 337 
Home projects, 16, 38, 66, 78, 89, 100, 
106, III, 119, 140, 160, 172, 187, 200, 
209, 216, 226, 239, 251, 266, 282, 290, 
300, 309, 318, 336, 353, 359, 367, 397 
Honeysuckle, bush, 404 
Horticulture, 201 
Hotbeds, 360 
Hydrangea, hardy, 405 

Inarching, 237 
Inoculation of soil, 155 

for alfalfa, 156 

for soy beans, 138 
Insect enemies, alfalfa, 159 

barley, 85 

cotton, 198 

orchards, 267 

potatoes, 180 

stone fruits, 316 

wheat, 76 
Insects, chewing, 268 
Irrigation of vegetable gardens, 354 

Japanese barberry, 403 
Japanese rose, 405 
Japanese snowball, 406 
Judging corn, 41 
Judging small grains, 59, 66 

color, 61 

damaged kernels, 64 

exercises, 65 

freedom from mixture, 61 

freedom from weed seed, 63 

hardness and texture, 64 

home projects, 66 

odor, 64 

score cards, 65 



Judging small grains — Continued 
size of kernels, 61 
trueness to type, 60 
uniformity in size and shape, 61 
viability, 64 
weight per bushel, 63 

Kentucky blue grass, 166 
harvesting for seed, 168 
hay crop, 166 
lawn grass, 168 
pasture, 166 
rate of seeding, 168 
soil adaptation, 169 
uses, 168 
weight of seed per bushel, 168 

Landscape gardening, 382 

formal style, 382 

lawn, 387 

mass planting, 394 

natural style, 382 

picturesque style, 382 

planting the grounds, 390 

selecting plants, 395 

walks and drives, 386 
Landscape planting plan, 392 
Lawn grass, 168, 387, 389 
Lawns, 387 
Layerage, 213 

air, 215 

mound, 215 

serpentine, 215 

simple, 214 

tip, 214 
Laying out the orchard, 247 
Leaf bUght, 278 
Leguminous crops, 120 
Lilac, 406 
Lime, 15 
Lime-sulphur sprays, concentrated, 

dilute, 28s 

self-boiled, 284 

strong, 287 
"Little peach," 280 
Longevity of seeds, 203 

Maintaining orchard fertiUty, 255 

Mammoth clover, 125 

Manure as fertilizer, 15, 147, 348 

Maples, 399 

Market gardening, 338 

Marketing, 84 



424 



INDEX 



Marketing — Continued 

barley, 84 

cotton, 198 

timothy, 164 

vegetables, 377 
Mass planting, 394 
Mixing fertilizers, 352 
Mixtures, grass, 162 
Mock orange, 404 
Moisture for seeds, 203 
Moth, codUng, 268 
Mowing lawns, 390 

Nitrogen, 11, 15 
Nurse crop, alfalfa, 145 

barley, 82 

oats, 94 

rye, 103, 127 

Oaks, 398 
Oats, 91 

diseases, 95 

exercises, 99 

growth, habits of, 92 

harvesting, 94 

history, 91 

home projects, 100 

immunity to rust, 96 

judging, 60 

Kherson, 94 

nurse crop for clover, 94 

rate of seeding, 94 

rotation, 95 

rust, 95 

score card, 98 

scoring, 98 

smut, 96 

soil, 94 

threshing, 94 

treatment for smut, 97 

varieties, 92 
Orchard, fertility, 255 

maintenance, 249 

management, 253 

site selection, 240 
Orchard grass, 170 

character of plant, 1 70 

hay, 171 

rate of seeding, 171 

sowing seed, 171 

uses, 171 
Oxygen for germination, 204 



Packages for vegetables, 376 
Packing fruits, 297 
Paris green, 286 
Pasture crops, 161 

alfalfa, 151 

grasses, 161 

rye, 104, 128 

timothy, 165 
Peach, culture, 310 

cultivation, 312 

planting, 310 

pruning, 311 

rules for planting, 310 

varieties, 313 

yellows, 280 
Peach- leaf curl, 277 
Pears, culture, 305 

planting, 305 

propagation, 305 

pruning, 305 

varieties, 306 
Peas, 129 

canning, 131 

classification, 129 

field, 131 

growth, habits of, 129 

harvesting, 131 

rate of seeding, 130 

rotation, 132 

seed bed, 129 

soil requirements, 130 

sowing seed, 130 

threshing, 131 

uses, 132 

varieties, 129 
Perennials, hardy, 408 
Philadelphus, 404 
Phosphorus, 11, 15 
Picking fruits, 293 
Pines, 402 

Planning fruit garden, 241 
Plant lice, 272 
Planting, alfalfa, 146 

apple trees, 302 

barley, 82 

buckwheat, 109 

corn, 26 

cotton, 19s 

fruit trees, 247 

home grounds, 390 

peaches, 310 

peas, 130 



INDEX 



425 



Planting — Conlinticd 

potatoes, 177 

red clover, 121 

soy beans, 136 

timothy, 162 

wheat, 71 
Planting tables, flowers, 413 

vegetables, 414 
Plowing, for alfalfa, 143 

for corn, 24 

vegetable garden, 354 
Plum curculio, 270 
Plums, culture, 314 

soil, 314 

varieties, 313 
Pollination of corn, 23 
Pomes, 301 

enemies of, 306 
Potash, II, 15 
Potatoes, 174 

arsenate of lead, 181 

blight, treatment for, 180 

breeding, 183 

classification, 174 

Colorado beetle, 180 

diseases, 178 

diseases, prevention of, 178 

exercises, 187 

feed for animals, 176 

growth, habits of, 175 

growth, period of, 175 

harvesting, 181 

history, 174 

home projects, 187 

improvement, 182 

insect control, 180 

methods of planting, 177 

new varieties, creating, 175 

Paris green, 181 

planting, 177 

scab, treatment for, 180 

score card, 185 

seed, 175 

seed bed, 177 

spray solutions, i7g 

storage, 176, 182 

uses, 176 
Preparation of orchard soils, 246 
Propagation, 305 

air layering, 215 

by cuttings, 218 

by dixision, 212 



Propagation — Continued 

by layerage, 213 

by seeds, 201 

by separation, 210 

mound layering, 215 

of apples, 302 

of blackberries, sSo 

of dewberries, s^s 

of pears, 305 

of raspberries, 333 

serpentine layering, 215 

simple layering, 214 

tip layering, 214 
Protein food, 135 
Pruning bearing trees, 263 

functions, 261 

method, 264 

orchards, 260 

peaches, 311 

season, 263 

Quinces, 306 

Raspberries, as 

culture, 3SS 

propagation, 33s 

pruning, 334 

soil, 333 

varieties, 335 
Rate of seeding, alfalfa, 146 

buckwheat, 109 

Kentucky blue grass, 168 

oats, 94 

peas, 130 

red clover, 121 

redtop, 172 

rye, 102 

wheat, 73 
Red clover, 1 20 

adaptation, 120 

curing the hay, 122 

cutting stage, 1 2 2 

hay, 122 

mixture with timothy, 121 

rate of seeding, 1 2 1 

second cutting, 122 

seed, 123 

sowing seed, 1 2 1 

time of seeding, 121 

yield of seed, 1 23 
Redtop, 171 

harvesting, 172 



426 



INDEX 



Redtop — Continued 

rate of seeding, 172 

soil adaptation, 171 

sowing seed, 172 
Rootstock, 212 
Rose, climbing, 407 

Japanese, 405 
Rotation, alfalfa, 156 

barley, 84 

buckwheat, no 

cotton, 196 

oats, 95 

peas, 132 

rye, loi 

timothy, 162 

wheat, 75 
Rules for planting peach, 310 
Rust, oat, 95 

rye, 106 

wheat, 76 
Rye, 1 01 

classes, loi 

cover crop, 104 

diseases, 105 

ergot, 105 

exercises, 106 

growth, habits of, loi 

harvesting, 103 

hay crop, 104 

home projects, 106 

judging, 60 

nurse crop, 103, 127 

pasture crop, 104, 128 

rate of seeding, 102 

rotation, loi 

rust, 106 

seed beds, loi 

straw, 105 

threshing, 103 

uses, 103 

Scab, 180, 275 

School gardening work, 347, 358, 367, 375 

Seed bed, alfalfa, 142 

buckwheat, 108 

corn, 24, 27 

peas, 129 

potatoes, 177 

rye, loi 

vetch, 129 

wheat, 70 
Seed longevity, 203 



Seed production, alfalfa, 152 

corn, 30, 41 

red clover, 123 

timothy, 165 

vetch, 128 
Seed sowing, 368 
Seed, storage, 206 

corn, 34 

potatoes, 176, 182 

soy beans, 138 
Seed stratification, 207 
Seed table, 374, 413, 414 
Seed testing, 201 

barley, 82 

com, 30 

timothy, 161 

wheat, 82 
Selecting plants — landscape planting, 395 
Selection, breeding by, 112 

of building sites, 384 
Separation, propagation by, 210 
Shot-hole fungus, 277 
Shrubbery planting, 395 
Shrubs, 402 
Silage, 29 
Smut, barley, 85, 86 

oats, 96 

wheat, 76 
Snowball, 406 
Soil, color, 12 

composition, 11 

kinds, 12 

mulch, 15 

water, 13 
Soil requirements, alfalfa, 142 

alsike clover, 126 

barley, 81 

buckwheat, 108 

corn, 25 

cotton, 194 

mammoth clover, 125 

oats, 94 

orchard, 246 

orchard grass, 170 

peas, 130 

red clover, 120 

redtop, 172 

rye, loi 

white clover, 126 
Sowing lawn seed, 390 
Soy beans, 132 

classification, 133 



INDEX 



427 



Soy beans — Continued 

composition, 134 

cultivation, 136 

description, 133 

digestible nutrients, 136 

exercises, 139 

growth, habits of, 133 

harvesting, 137 

hay, 134, 135 

history, 132 

home projects, 140 

planting, 136 

protein food, 135 

soil inoculation, 138 

storing, 138 

threshing, 138 

uses, 134 

varieties, 134 
Spirea, 403 

Anthony Waterer, 406 
Splice grafting, 233 
Spores, propagation by, 207 
Spraying mixtures, 283 
Spruces, 401 

Stable manure for vegetables, 348 
Stolons, 212 
Stone fruits, 310 

cherries, 315 

diseases, 316 

insects, 316 

peaches, 310 

plums, 313 
Storage, fruit, 298 

vegetables, 380 
Stratification of seeds, 207 
Strawberries, 324 

cultivation, 327 

culture, 324 

diseases, 328 

insects, 328 

soil, 324 

varieties, 328 
Sucking insects, 271 
Syringa, 404 
Systems of orchard planting, 242 

alternate, 243 

distances between trees, 243 

hexagonal, 243 

square, 242 

Temperature requirements of seeds, 204 
Tent caterpillar, 270 



Thinning fruits, 291 
Threshing, barley, 84 

buckwheat, 109 

oats, 94 

peas, 131 

rye, 103 

soy beans, 138 

wheat, 73 
Tillage of vegetable gardens, 354 

cultivation, 355 

harrowing, 354 

plowing, 354 
Time, for planting orchards, 246 

for planting seeds, 374 
Time required for germination, 205 
Timothy, 161 

cutting and curing, 163 

growth, habits of, 166 

harvesting for seed, 165 

marketing hay, 164 

mixture, 162 

naked seeds, 161 

pasturing, 165 

rotation, 162 

side-delivery rake, 164 

sowing seed, 162 

storing hay, 164 

testing seed, 161 

varieties, 161 
Tobacco, 288 
Tongue grafting, 234 
Transplanting vegetables, 370 
Trees for landscape planting, 398 
Truck gardening, 338 
Tuber, 212 

Varieties, of apples, 304 

of peaches, 313 

of plums, 313 

selecting, 244, 340 
Vegetable forcing, 340 
Vegetable garden, cUmate, 342 

destroying insects, 345 

location, 341 

plan, 342 

planning, 343 

preventing diseases, 344 

rotation, 344 

selecting varieties, 340 
Vegetable gardening, 337 
Vegetable packages, 376 
Vegetable storage, 380 



428 



INDEX 



Vetch, 126 
hairy, 127 
kinds, 129 
rate of seeding, 127 
seed description, i 2S 
seed production, 1 28 
sowing seed, 127 
uses, 128 

Viability, 64, 82 

Vines, ornamental, 406 

Walks and driv^es, 386 
Webworm, 270 
Weights, table of, 416 
Wheat, 67 

bluestem, 69 

classification, 67, 69 

durum, 69 

enemies, 76 

Fife, 69 

Fultz, 67 

grading, 71 



Wheat — Continued 

growth, habits of, 70 

harvesting, 7,^ 

history, 67 

home projects, 78 

insect pests, 76 

judging, 60 

Marquis, 69 

rate of seeding, 73 

rotation, 75 

score card, 77 

scoring, 76 

seed bed, 70 

sowing seed, 71 

testing seed, 71 

threshing, 73 

varieties, 67 

velvet chaff, 69 
White cedar, 402 
White clover, 126 

Yellow currant, 404 



